USGS

Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water

U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 2254

By John D. Hem


Table of Contents

Preface

Abstract

Introduction

Purpose and scope

Arrangement of topics

Properties and structure of water

Composition of the Earth’s crust

The hydrosphere

The atmosphere

Principles and processes controlling composition of natural water

Thermodynamics of aqueous systems

Chemical reactions

Reversible and irreversible reactions in water chemistry

Chemical equilibrium-the law of mass action

Ionic activity

Calculation of activity coefficients at higher ionic strength

Effects of temperature and pressure on chemical equilibria

Solution of calcite

Free energy and the equilibrium constant

Electrochemical equilibrium

Disequilibrium indices

Thermodynamics of nonequilibrium systems

Rates of chemical reactions

Rate constants: order of reaction

Effect of temperature on reaction rate

Chemical kinetics and the law of mass action

Solubility concepts

Solubility product

Reactions at interfaces

Gas-liquid interfaces

Liquid-solid interfaces

Adsorption equations

Cation exchange capacity, selectivity

Electrical double-layer models

Membrane effects

Clay as semipermeable membranes

Relationships among environmental factors and natural-water composition

Climate

Geologic effects

Biochemical factors

Ecology applied to natural water

Influence of soil and soil-forming processes

Aquatic biota

The hydrologic cycle

Sources of solutes in the atmosphere

Composition of atmospheric precipitation

Influence of humans

Chemical thermodynamic models applied to natural water

The phase rule

Some characteristics of ground-water systems

Surface water systems-rivers

Lakes and reservoirs

Estuaries

Water chemistry and movement in the unsaturated zone

Geochemical cycles

Evaluation of water composition

Collection of water samples

Sampling of river water

Comparability of records

Lake and reservoir sampling

Ground-water sampling

Completeness of sample coverage

Analysis of water samples

Field testing of water

Geophysical indicators of ground-water quality

Laboratory procedures

Expression of water analyses

Hypothetical combinations

Ionic statement

Determinations included in analyses

Units used in reporting analyses

Weight-per-weight units

Weight-per-volume units

Equivalent-weight units

Composition of anhydrous residue

Concentration in terms of calcium carbonate

Comparison of units of expression

Forms of dissolved material-complexes, ion pairs, and polymers

Significance of properties and constituents reported in water analyses

Nature of the dissolved state

Characterization of suspended particulate material

Hydrogen-ion activity (pH)

Buffered solutions

Range of pH of natural water

Measurement and interpretation of pH

Specific electrical conductance

Units for reporting conductance

Physical basis of conductance

Range of conductance values

Accuracy and reproducibility

Silica

Forms of dissolved silica

Solubility controls

Occurrence in natural water

Aluminum

Sources of aluminum in water

Species in solution

Solubility controls

Occurrence of aluminum in water

Iron

Sources of iron

Species of iron in natural water

Solubility calculations: pH-Eh diagrams

Reaction rates

Roles of bacteria in solution and precipitation of iron

Occurrence of iron in water

Manganese

Sources of manganese

Form of dissolved manganese

Quantification of manganese redox processes

Occurrence of manganese in water

Calcium

Sources of calcium

Solute species

Chemical controls of calcium concentration

Occurrence of calcium in water

Magnesium

Sources of magnesium

Form of dissolved magnesium

Chemical controls of magnesium concentration

Occurrence of magnesium in water

Sodium

Sources of sodium

Dissolved species

Solubility controls

Occurrence of sodium in water

Potassium

Sources of potassium

Control mechanisms for potassium concentration

Occurrence of potassium in water

Alkalinity and acidity

Alkalinity

Sources of alkalinity

The carbon cycle

Occurrence of bicarbonate and carbonate

Acidity

Sources of acidity

Occurrence of acidity in water

Sulfur

Redox properties of sulfur

Sources of sulfur

The sulfur cycle

Forms of dissolved sulfate

Sulfate solubility

Occurrence of sulfate in water

Occurrence of sulfide in water

Chloride

Sources of chloride

Occurrence and chemistry of chloride in water

Accuracy of determination

Fluoride

Sources of fluoride in water

Chemistry of fluoride in water

Range of concentration

Nitrogen

Sources and chemistry of nitrogen

Occurrence of nitrogen in water

Phosphorus

Chemistry of phosphate in water

Occurrence of phosphate in water

Nitrogen and phosphorus as nutrients

Boron

Sources of boron

Chemistry and occurrence of boron in water

Minor and trace constituents

Availability of analytical data

Sample collection and treatment

Sources of information

Minor elements in seawater

Anthropogenic factors

Occurrence of minor constituents

Alkali metals

Alkaline earth metals

Beryllium

Strontium

Barium

Transition metals

Titanium

Vanadium

Chromium

Cobalt

Nickel

Molybdenum

Other metallic elements

Copper

Silver

Zinc

Cadmium

Mercury

Lead

Nonmetallic elements

Arsenic

Antimony

Selenium

Bromine

Iodine

Radioactive elements

Uranium

Radium

Radon

Thorium

Other radioactive nuclides

Lead-210

Tritium

Carbon-14

Strontium-90

Plutonium and other transuranium elements

Organic constituents

Dissolved and total organic carbon

Indirect evaluation of DOC effects

Color

Synthetic organics

Dissolved gases

Inert gases

Oxygen

Hydrocarbon gases

Chemically related properties

Residue on evaporation

Significance of determination

Dissolved solids-computed

Chemical factors in dissolved-solids computations

Oxygen demand and other evaluations of organic pollution load

Biochemical oxygen demand (B/D)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Hardness

Range of hardness concentration

Redox potential

Range of redox potential in natural water

Sodium-adsorption ratio (SAAR)

Density

Stable isotopes

Organization and study of water-analysis data

Evaluation of the water analysis

Accuracy and reproducibility

Accuracy checks

Significant figures

General evaluations of areal water quality

Inspection and comparison

Ion ratios and water types

Statistical treatment of water-quality data

Averages

Frequency distributions

Solute correlations

Graphical methods of representing analyses

Ion-concentration diagrams

Trilinear plotting systems

Methods of extrapolating chemical data

Water-quality hydrographs

Water quality in relation to stream discharge

Water-quality maps

Map symbols

Isogram maps

Water-quality profiles

Relation of water quality to lithology

Igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Resistates

Hydrolyzates

Precipitates

Evaporites

Metamorphic rocks

Influence of activities of humans

Saltwater intrusion

Application of water-quality measurements to quantitative hydrology

Mathematical simulations-flow models

Relation of quality of water to use

Domestic uses and public supplies

Agricultural use

Industrial use

Recreational and esthetic uses

Water-management concepts and problems

Selected references

Index 255



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