Russia's Coal Industry: Retrospective, Current Status, Perspective
Oral Presentation

By V.N. Kochetkov

Kemerovo Scientific Center, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia

Introduction

It is generally recognized that international energy consumption, which is expected to rise 40 to 45 percent by the year 2020, is controlled by the growth of the world's population and in turn controls countries' enhanced economic development and continued urbanization and people's advanced mobility. These facts require the increased production of all types of energy resources. Therefore the world's coal production may grow in excess of 1.5 times and amount to 7 billion tons per year. Increased energy consumption may create a favorable foundation for the development of Russia's power and fuel system (PFS). In 1999, the consumption of coal as a primary energy source in countries of the Former Soviet Union equaled 19 percent. Despite increased environmental controls and competition from other energy sources, especially natural gas, coal-based energy production is expected to grow.

Undertaking a government policy to boost the national economy of Russia at a rate of 6 to 8 percent annually for the next 10 years, to be followed by a successive rise of 8 to 10 percent, obviously requires the enhanced production of all types of energy resources. For a growth of this nature, export of energy resources—especially natural gas and liquid fuels—will continue to be fundamentally important until 2020. Between the years 2012 and 2015, exports will need to grow and in time are expected to reach a level of about 600 million tons per year.

Russia's own needs in required energy resources will be met mostly by increased coal production. Forecast production of primary fuel resources in Russia (fig.1), particularly coal, is determined by predicting electrical power demand and its production scheme (figs. 2, 3). Power producing scenarios estimate 500 to 600 million tons of coal production by 2020. Coal is and will remain the basic strategic fuel for electrical power stations and for public consumers.

Figure 1. Forecast production of primary fuel-energy resources in Russia (Ministry of Energy data).

Figure 2. Forecast for electrical energy demand in Russia (billion kWh).

Figure 3. Forecast electrical energy production structure in Russia (billion kWh).

Coal consumption by heat power stations (HPS) will increase 1.5 to 2 times by 2020 and is regarded as the foundation for Russia's electrical power generation. Coal usage in HPS in 2000 was approximately 30 percent of the total (or 74 million tons). Natural gas consumption totaled 64 percent (about 155.7 million tons), and fuel oil dropped to 5 percent (12.7 million tons). The projected HPS contribution to total electrical power generation in 2020 will remain at about 70 percent. In the future, the contribution of natural gas to the energy balance will decrease to about 50 percent, while the portion contributed by coal will rise to more than 40 percent. The coal industry remains a principal strategic component of Russia's power and fuel sector. Huge coal reserves contribute to the future of the country's economy. The coal industry is regarded as the basis for the development of many other industries: metallurgical, chemical, railroad and water transport, and food and light industries.

General Characteristics of Russia's Coal Reserves

The Russian Federation possesses immense coal reserves in excess of 200 billion metric tons, approximately 12 percent of the world's reserves. Known reserves equal 105.4 billion metric tons, but geological coal resources are estimated at more than to 4,000 billion metric tons (approximately 30 percent of the world's resources) (fig.4).

Figure 4. Balanced coal reserves in Russia (billion tons).

Coal is mined in the following Russian coal basins (figs. 5, 6): the Pechorsky basin in the north; the Podmoskovny and North Caucasian Donetsky basins in the central part of Russia; the Juzhno-Uralsky, Chelyabinsky, and Kizelovsky basins in the Urals; the Siberian-Kuzbassy, Gorlovsky, Kansko-Achinsky basins in the west; the Kansko-Achinsky, Toongusky, Minusinsky, Irkutsky, Ulug-Khemsky, and Zabaikalsky basins in eastern Siberia; and the Juzhno-Jakutsky, Lensky, Partizansky, Uglovsky, Rasdolnensky, Zyrjansky, and Sakhalinsky basins in the Far East.

Figure 5. Coal basins and coal deposits of Russia and Newly Independent States countries.

Figure 6. Description of Russia's coal basins

The Pechorsky coal basin is located within the boundaries of the Komi Republic and the Arkhangelsk region of the Russian Federation. The basin encompasses an area of 90,000 km2 and is in a zone of tundra and forest-tundra. Total coal resources equal 265 billion metric tons, 23.9 billion metric tons of which are considered reserves (13.7 billion tons are economic and 10.2 billion tons are noneconomic). Coals of this basin are humic in origin and range in rank from lignite to anthracite. Fifty to 60 percent of the coal is bituminous B and D in rank, and coking coals are mostly of Z (fat) grades. The average coal quality is as follows:

> D grade: moisture, 11percent; ash yield, 28.7 percent; sulfur content, 3.0 percent; volatile matter, 39.0 percent; calorific value, 18.1 J/kg
> Z grade: moisture, 5.0 percent; ash yield, 14.8 percent; sulfur content, 0.8 percent; volatile matter, 32.0 percent; calorific value, 26/7 J/k.

Coals in the Pechorsky basin are mined by underground methods. Mining operations are complicated due to variations in coal thickness, widespread permafrost occurrence, and abundance of coal-bed methane. Many coal mines are dangerous because of methane gas and dust conditions.

The Podmoskovny coal basin is situated in the territories of the Novgorodskaya, Smolenskaya, Kalininskaya, Tulskaya, and Rjazanskaya regions of the Russian Federation. The total coal-bearing area is approximately 120,000 km2, and the coal beds are as deep as 200 m below the surface. Total coal resources equal 11 billion metric tons. Economic reserves in four coal beds equal 4,098 million metric tons, and noneconomic reserves equal 1,843 million metric tons. Coals are lignite in rank and are mainly huminite in origin with humic-sapropelic and cannel coal interlayers. The coals are high in ash yield (29–33 percent on average), sulfur content (3–4 percent), contain 35 to 38 percent moisture, and 46 percent average volatile matter. Economic deposits have been mostly mined out; production peaked in the 1960's and 1970's and equaled 35 million metric tons annually.

The Donetsky coal basin contains 6.6 billion metric tons of bituminous coal reserves and 0.3 billion metric tons of coking-grade coal. The deposit is of a complex geologic structure and is not favorable for mine development because of the depth (≥1,000 m and more) and thinness (<1 m) of the coal beds.

The Chelyabinsky basin, which occupies 1,300 km2, contains lignite and is located in the Chelyabinsk region of the Russian Federation. Economic coal reserves equal 687 million metric tons. Average quality indices are as follows: moisture, 17 percent; ash yield, 36 percent; sulfur content, 1.2 percent; volatile matter, 44 percent; calorific value, 28 J/kg. The main production company within this basin, Chelyabinskugol, operated 11 underground mines and four open pits (with a combined industrial capacity of 14.3 million metric tons per year), 5 coal processing plants, 2 mining equipment repair plants, and other production facilities in 1989.

The Kizelovsky coal basin is located in the Permskaya region of the Russian Federation. A narrow (5–20 km), elongate (150 km) strip of coal-bearing strata stretches along the western slopes of the Ural Mountains. The coal basin covers approximately 200 km2, and coal reserves equal 464 million metric tons. Bituminous coal is mostly durain and of gas (G) and fat (Z) ranks, with high ash yields and sulfur contents. Mining and geological conditions are extremely complicated owing to intensive structural deformation and deeply buried coal beds (up to 1,200 m). Development is not anticipated because of the coal quality and complex mining conditions.

The Gorlovsky coal basin is located 100 km to the south of the city of Novosibirsk, in a 1.5×7.5 km-wide and 120-km-long zone oriented north-east. The basin's total resources are estimated at 6 billion metric tons. Reserves (<300 m in depth) are estimated at 188 million metric tons, and hypothetical resources are estimated at 110 million metric tons. At least 119 million metric tons are available for open-pit mining. The 16 coal beds in the basin are anthracite in rank. Individual beds range from 10 to 14 m in thickness and, in places, reach 26 to 41 m. The coal strata in this basin are correlated to the upper Balokhoskaya series of the Kuzbass coal basin. Key quality indicators are as follows: volatile matter, approximately 4 percent; ash yield, 6 to 7 percent; sulfur content, 0.3 percent; calorific value 34.1 J/kg.

The Kansko-Achinsky coal basin is located in the territory of Krasnoyarsky krai and partially in the Kemerovo and Irkutsk regions of Russia. The coal basin is elongated in a latitudinal direction, 800 km along the Trans Siberian main railroad, and covers an area of approximately 50,000 km2. Explored coal reserves total 81.4 billion metric tons, 80.1 billion tons of which are lignite. There are an additional 34.2 billion metric tons of estimated resources,33.9 billion tons of which are lignite. Bituminous coal resources—long flame-D and gas-G ranks—total 1.3 and 0.3 billion metric tons, respectively. Brown coal resources available for open pit mining total 79.2 billion metric tons of explored reserves and 32.8 billion metric tons of estimated resources. Hypothetical coal resources less than 600 m in depth are estimated at 523 billion metric tons (260 billion metric tons in terms of conventional fuel). This coal is of humic in nature (mainly lignite), with low ash yield (7–15 percent) and sulfur content (0.3–0.7 percent), and a calorific value of 27.2 to 29.3 J/kg.

A large power and fuel complex has been set up in the Kansko-Achinsky coal basin because geologic conditions are favorable and facilitate a broad-scale. highly effective open-pit coal-mining operation. Near-term plans for the coal include liquid fuel and chemical feedstock production.

The Toongusky coal basin is located primarily in the territory of Krasnoyarsky krai and partially in the Sakha republic and Irkutsk region. This basin exceeds 1 million square kilometers in area. The coal basin contains huge coal resources that are estimated at more than 2 trillion metric tons. However, the basin is not sufficiently studied because of its inaccessible location. Some exploration work has been carried out in small areas within the basin. From these studies, balanced coal reserves equal 5339 million metric tons. Coal from this basin has a low to medium ash yield (2–5 percent), low sulfur content (0.2–1 percent) with a wide range of coal ranks, from lignite to anthracite and graphite.

The Minusinsky coal basin is located in the south of Krasnoyarsky krai. Total coal resources extend to a depth of 1,800 m and are estimated at 26.7 billion metric tons. Explored reserves total 4.9 billion metric tons, 3.2 billion metric tons of which are available for open-pit mining. Coal in this basin is of steam rank, long flamed and gas type, with ash yields of 16 to 20 percent, moisture contents of 9 to 14 percent , 40 to 44 percent volatile matter, calorific values of 20.5 to 22.0 J/kg , low phosphorous, low sulfur content, and resin recovery coefficients of 10 to 20 percent.

The Irkutsky coal basin is situated in the Irkutsk oblast of the Russian Federation. The basin is elongated from the northwest to the southeast along the Siberian main railroad for a distance of 500 km, at an average width of 80 km. The total area occupied by the basin is approximately 37,000 km2. Coal was discovered in the Irkutsk coal basin at the end of 18th century, and industrial development began in 1896. Explored coal reserves total 7.5 billion metric tons, 2.2 billion metric tons of which are bituminous and 2.3 billion tonsof which are lignite. Additional resources are estimated at 9 billion metric tons,8.5 billion metric tons of which are bituminous and 0.5 of which are lignite. Sixteen coal districts have been identified, and 20 big coal deposits have been explored. Coal is mainly humic in origin (87 percent) and partially humic-sapropelic and sapropelic, with medium to high ash yield (19–30 percent), low to high sulfur contents (up to 5.5 percent), and a typically high production of semicoking resin.

The Ulug-Khemsky coal basin is situated in the Tuva Republic and comprises an area of 2,330 km2. Total resources equal 14.2 billion metric tons,13.0 billion metric tons of which are considered conventional fuel. Balanced coal reserves equal 654 million metric tons. These balanced coal reserves are composed of humic coal with a high resin content and are gas, gas/fat, fat, and coking fat in rank, have medium ash yield (9.9–14.5 percent), low sulfur content (0.4 percent), are easy to process, and have a moisture content of 5 to 7 percent, 46 to 35 percent volatile matter, and a calorific value of 36 J/kg.

The Ujzhno-Jakutsky coal basin is located in the Sakha Republic and comprises an area of 25,000 km2. Balanced coal reserves equal 5423 million metric tons (in 1988); hypothetical resources total about 35 billion metric tons. The majority of the coal mined is of the following ranks: gas, long flamed, fat/coking, coking, and lean coking.

Potential development sites are characterized by the presence of permafrost, with rock temperatures ranging between –10° and –50°C. In addition, mine development is difficult because potential mine sites are distantly remote from each other, and structural features such as faults, uplifts, and thrusts are present.

The Lensky coal basin is the second largest in terms of resource base in Russia. This coal basin possesses 10 percent of the world's estimated coal resources. The basin is located partially in the territory of Krasnoyarsk krai, occupying an area of 600,000 km2. Coal reserves constitute 3.17 billion metric tons,2.38 billion metric tons of which are suitable for open pit mining. Total geological resources of the basin are 1,647 billion metric tons, 945 billion metric tons of which are lignite. Although huge coal resources exist in this basin, they are barely studied or developed because of the isolated nature of the deposits and the uneconomical conditions of development. At least 50 coal bed out of the more than 150 known have thicknesses in excess of 1 m. Coal ranks range from lignite to lean baked. The coal is mainly of humic type with low ash yields (5–25 percent) and sulfur contents (0.2–0.5 percent). Some deposits feature a high percentage of semicoking resin output.

The Partizansky coal basin is situated in Primorsky krai of the Russian Federation over an area of about 6,000 km2. The basin is well studied, and a narrow zone in the southeast about 200 km2 in area is currently under development. Estimated coal reserves amount to 413 million metric tons. The upper portions and fractured zones within the mines are characterized by increased water flow. Water inflow rate into the mine workings is recorded at 15 to 100 m3/hr. Mining and geological conditions are very difficult owing to an abundance of disturbed and fractured zones, variation in the coal beds thicknesses, and a high gas content.

The Razdolnensky coal basin is located in the Primorsky krai. The area studied encompasses about 8,000 km2, but this basin's frontiers have not yet been firmly established. Total geological resources equal about 2.2 billion metric tons. Balanced reserves equal 299.5 million metric tons. Average quality indices of this long-flamed coal are as follows: ash yield, 29 to 31 percent; volatile matter, 48 to 55 percent; sulfur content, 0.3 to 0.46 percent; calorific value, 31 to 34.5 J/kg. Resin output from humic coal is 5.6 to 15.3 percent.

The Sakhalinsky coal basin is located on Sakhalin Island over an area of 6,000 km2. Coal reserves are estimated at 15.9 billion metric tons.

The national statistics of explored coal reserves, as of January 1, 1998, indicate Russia's long-term (hundreds of years) coal development potential (figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Despite the abundance of explored reserves in this country, however, some difficulties exist in relation to their exploitation. One of the most important difficulties is the irregular distribution of resource within the country's territories. Ninety percent of the deposits are found in the Asian part of Russi,a and only 10 percent are found in the European part. However, the European part of Russia contributes more than 70 percent of the national industry and is home to about 115 million people (including the Urals) out of a total Russian population of approximately 148.4 million. Coal exploitation challenges also include the fact that coal deposits in eastern Russia must be mined by underground methods, which are more expensive than open-pit mining. The majority of coal deposits in eastern Russia have complex geological structures, especially in the western part of the Kuzbass coal basin and the eastern part of the Donetsk coal basin, where mining conditions are very difficult.

Figure 7. Explored balance coal reserves (billion tons).

Figure 8. Coking coal reserves in Russia (billion tons)

Figure 9. Coal reserves of functioning mines and open pits (billion tons, number of mines).

Figure 10. Coal reserves of spare deposits aimed for new development (billion tons, number of coal fields.

Figure 11. Coal reserves of spare deposits aimed for new development (billion tons, number of coal fields

Figure 12..Distribution of coal reserves of _+_+–1 rank (billion tons) by economic industrial regions of Russia.

The most explored coal basins of Russia are located in the Asian part and include the Kuzbassy and Kansko-Achinsky basins, which account for about 70 percent of the nation's explored coal reserves. Many of these huge deposits are located in remote and economically undeveloped areas of the Toongussky, Lensky, Juzhno-Jakutsky, and other coal basins. Many of the developed deposits are very far away from actual consumers. In addition, the characteristically high ash yields of many deposits inhibit their post-mining processing and decrease the coal's marketability.

However, even if highly unprofitable mines and unserviceable coal reserves (about 40 percent) are eliminated from active operation, the remaining raw material in combination with new technological developments will be sufficient to secure an effective coal-mining industry over the next century and longer.

Gas Resources of Coal Deposits

Coal-bearing strata contain various types of commercially important geological resources. These include host rocks that are useful in the construction industry, groundwater, coal-bed methane, and rare and dispersed elements, including precious metals and their compounds. Economic considerations often preclude these resources from being independent targets for exploitation. However, their concomitant recovery during coal mining and successive industrial use may have economic impact and improve a coal mine's profitability.

In this respect, coal-bed methane may be of primary importance. On the one hand, coal-bed methane is a hazard during coal mining. On the other hand, it is environmentally clean and an effective fuel. Russia's coal-mine methane resources are very large and comparable to those of natural gas, totaling 200 to 300 trillion cubic meters. Of this total, the Kuzbass coal basin contains about 50 to 70 trillion cubic meters, and the Pechorsky basin contains about 15 to 20 trillion cubic meters. Recoverable resources are estimated at 13 trillion cubic meters in the Kuzbass and up to 2 trillion cubic meters in the Pechorsky coal basin. These figures are rather significant for serious consideration of coal-bed methane industrial production potential.

Forecast coal-bed methane resources are shown in figure 13. The distribution of these resources is irregular. Coal-bed methane resources in functioning mines are estimated to be 212 billion cubic meters in the Kuzbass basin and 26 billion cubic meters in Pechorsky coal basin. In the Kuzbass coal basin, more than 93 percent of the estimated coal-bed methane resources occur within operational coal beds; less than 7 percent occur in unmineable beds and interburden between coal beds. About 50 percent of the coal-bed gas in the Kuzbass basin occurs at depths of less than 1,200 m. In the Pechorsky coal basin, operational beds contain about 80 percent of the methane, and nonoperational beds and interburden contain about 20 percent. About 65 percent of the coal-bed gas in the Pechorsky basin is at depths of less than 1,200 m.

Figure 13. Forecast coal bed methane resources incorporated in Russia's principal coal basins and coal deposits (billion cubic meters).

Average specific methane emissions from Kuzbass mines are estimated at 25 m3/t of mined coal. At some mines, this figure reaches 60 and 80 m3/t. At particularly gassy mines, this value can be even 1.5 to 2 times higher. Degasification technology employed at coal mines in Russia is capable of recovering between 20 and 30 percent of the total liberated methane . Coal-mining enterprises in Kuzbass emit into the atmosphere about 1 to 2 billion cubic meters of methane each year. Drained methane delivered to the surface via degasification pipelines totals 100 to 200 million cubic meters. Rather than being vented, this methane might be used for generating electrical and thermal power, producing motor fuel, and providing feedstock for the chemical industry.

Concomitant methane recovery and its utilization are of great importance for the Kuzbass basin for the following reasons:

- The presence of methane in mine workings is considered the most inhibiting factor to increased coal production.
- Methane resource development and its subsequent utilization as a valuable hydrocarbon feedstock and energy resource will enable additional avenues in the coal industry and create additional jobs, thus enhancing the region's economic viability.
- Partial coal displacement by methane in electrical and thermal power generation will decrease the emission of harmful substances into the local atmosphere and improve the ecological situation in cities of the region.
- Methane (as a greenhouse gas with 21 times more environmental impact than carbon dioxide) contributes to about 10 percent of the total atmospheric emissions from anthropogenic sources in a coal-fuel cycle; these emissions may be abated via utilization without having to raise intensive capital investment.

Recent scientific research, combined with investment projects and feasibility studies, has established an international basis for a more targeted and coordinated activity in coal-mine methane recovery and utilization in the Kasbahs basin. Generating electrical power by means of gas generator units and gas turbines is considered a prospective utilization trend. Using methane for electrical power generation or for consumer supply is considered economically viable for the Kasbahs basin (fig. 14). Considering the low capital costs for boiler house retrofitting, it may be beneficial to co-fire methane and coal in Kasbahs boiler houses .

Figure 14. Assessment of economic efficiency of coal bed methane utilization options in Kuzbass.1, Gas sales: commercial with enrichment; 2, gas sales: commercial without enrichment; 3, gas sales: local with enrichment; 4, gas sales: local without enrichment; 5, gas use: thermal dryer; 6, gas use: boiler; 7, gas use: ventilation heating; 8, electricity generation: sales only; 9, electricity generation: use only; 10, electricity generation: use, then sales.

Within the last several years, the international community has proposed several initiatives for abating the risk of global climate warming via greenhouse emissions reduction. These initiatives are well defined in the main Kyoto Protocol document. Kasbahs coal mine operators have expressed their willingness to take part in the implementation of these methane emission reduction projects. Technologically and technically, such projects are simple to implement, and the amount of reduced methane emissions can be monitored with great accuracy.

The average cost of greenhouse gas reduction in industrially developed countries is 1 USD per ton of carbon equivalent. An approximate estimate of the cost of coal-mine methane emissions reduction in the Kasbahs basin is 0.40 USD per ton of carbon equivalent. If one considers the annual coal mine methane emissions in the Kasbahs basin (fig. 15) and the 50-percent efficiency of current degasification technology , then Kasbahs basin market of abated coal mine methane emissions may amount to about 52.5 million USD annually.

Figure 15. Underground coal mining and methane emission in Kuzbass.

The International Center of Coal and Methane of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in conjunction with the ICF Consulting Company (USA), has prepared a project under the framework of the United Nations Development Program: Russian Federation Removal of Barriers in Coal Mine Methane Recovery and Utilization. When more international agreements in the field of global climate change abatement are in place, Kuzbass may attract up to 1.9 million USD annually for the implementation of methane projects.

Trends in Coal Use and Processing

Coal possesses a complex chemical composition, and its processing potential is greater than that of oil and natural gas. Coal can be used not only for electrical and thermal power generation but also as a feedstock for other types of fuel production (solid, gaseous and liquid), graphitized carbon, alloys and metals, humic fertilizers, sorbents, rare and scattered elements, construction materials, and the like. For this reason, it is essential to create a base of scientific research upon which to develop environmentally friendly and economically viable coal-processing technologies. The result may be new industrial trends in coal usage and the conversion of its constituents into valuable commodities directly at mining sites.

Coal-water fuel (CWF) is an artificial composite dispersed substance based on a mixture of water and coal. One possible use of this substance may be in power station combustion without prior dehydration and drying, as is currently being done in Russia. CWF could replace less available and more costly oil fuel and lessen the formation of harmful substances and their release into the atmosphere.

A unique experimental-industrial coal pipeline in Belovo-Novosibirsk of the Russian Federation has a rated capacity of 3 million tons of coal per year and is more than 260 km long. The efficiency and viability of the pipelines have been tested and confirmed. From 1989 to 1997, about 450 thousand tons of CWF was prepared with an average coal ash yield of 16.5 percent. In the boiler units of the Novosibirskaya heat power station #5, about 370 thousand tons of CWF were delivered and combusted. It is important to note that CWF combustion produces 2 to 2.5 times less nitric oxide emissions, 1.2 times less particulates, and 70 percent less sulfur oxide than the coal normally used at this station. The feedstock used for the CWF mixture is a bituminous coal of gas and long-flamed ranks, with up to 0.5 percent sulfur content, 14 percent ash yield, and a minimum calorific value of 22.9 J/kg.

The Belovo-Novosibirsk experimental-industrial coal pipeline was built as the first line of a planned major coal piping system called the Kuzbass-Ural and was designed for high throughput and long distances (fig. 16). Considering the broad-scale utilization potential of CWF, its relative ecological purity and safety, its market competitiveness with other types of fuel, and the insignificant cost of retrofitting procedures, it may be widely introduced in many regions of Russiaand therefore play an important role in the country's national energy sufficiency and safety.

Figure 16. Diagram of Belovo-Novosibirisk coal pipeline (length of pipeline 264 km).

Underground Gasification

An underground gasification plant was in operation for a number of years in the Kuzbass basin (1955–1995). This station began operation as an experimental-industrial enterprise with a primary goal of testing underground coal gasification as a valid means for coal deposit development. Twenty-three coal beds of gas/fat rank, with 9 percent ash yield, thicknesses varying between 2 and 9 m, and 55° to 700° angles of dip, were defined for gasification. Initially, coal reserves were estimated as 281.4 million metric tons. However, in 1977, industrial reserves aimed for gasification constituted only 32.6 million metric tons.

The highest production at this plant was achieved in 1966 at 488 million cubic meters of gas, at a gas prime cost of 1.98 RUR/1000 m3 or 14 RUR/t of conventional fuel. From 1967 to 1977, the plant's productivity ranged between 300 and 420 million cubic meters, but the amount of delivered gas eventually decreased while the prime cost rose.

The most effective use of underground coal gasification in the Kuzbass basin is as a replacement for coal and electrical power generation by gas turbine units for fueling boiler houses and heat power stations. Another effective use is as feedstock in the chemical industry (for conducting all types of synthesis, because the chemical composition of underground coal gasification gas is optimal for a synthesis of artificial liquid fuel, natural gas substitute, benzol, sulfur and ammonia production, and so on).

Other Experimental Technologies.

In the field of deep coal processing, Russian scientists continue to conduct research in order to achieve the highest potential of different coals, from lignite to anthracite. Some experimental-industrial technologies were developed relating to thermochemical processing and domestic briquette production from lignite of the Kansko-Achinsky coal basin, as well as from bituminous (anthracite) slurry and screenings. Development and perfection of different artificial liquid fuel technologies are underway. Of particular interest is the possibility of an industrial realization of smooth pyrolysis (LFC) production of liquid hydrocarbons and relatively clean hard fuel. The best suitable raw materials for this 21st century technology are young coals of the Kuzbass basin (in western Siberia), which have a relatively low calorific value (approximately 5,000–5,800 kcal/kg).

Figure 17 exhibits a diagram of complex coal and coal-waste processing. Unique in terms of their chemical compositions, organic substances as lignite, combustible shale, and coal processing wastes may produce valuable chemical products such as resin, motor fuel components, fuel briquettes, and construction materials by thermal dilution, pyrolysis, or gasification. Currently the issue of deep-coal processing is of great concern to national, local, and scientific organizations because this work lays the foundation for advances in coal trading, incorporating the advent of new products for consumer needs. It also facilitates the broadening of Russia's coal and coal product spheres of use in the 21st century.

Figure 17. Principal layout of comprehensive processing of Kuzbass low-grade coal and coal wastes.

Coal as a Feedstock for Rare and Rare-Earth Elements

The progress of many advanced technologies is based on an understanding of and the availability of rare and rare-earth metals. Some rare and rare-earth metals lack their own deposits and are found only with associated elements such as Sc, Ge, Ga, In, Re, Ti, Se, Te, and so on. The production of rare and rare-earth metals is often accompanied by the recovery of lead, zinc, copper, nickel, aluminum, and other metals. Recently the world community has focused attention on nontraditional sources of rare (RE) and rare-earth elements (REE) as well as on innovative technologies for their development and extraction.

Coal (mainly lignite) and its ash-slurry wastes are considered a source of RE and REE. Russian lignite reserves are unique and quite often contain high percentages of rare, rare-earth, and other precious metals. Concentrations of some of these are very high in some Siberian deposits and may be viewed as promising sources of RE and REE. These include not only germanium, the major portion of which is extracted worldwide from coal, but also scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and lanthanide group elements.

Coal research undertaken in the Kansko-Achinsky and Lensky coal basins indicates the availability of high concentrations of RE and REEs. In some instances, a group of coal beds was identified that contained anomalously high concentrations of RE and REE. Technological recovery of germanium and RE and REE recovery from ash and slurry wastes is generally well understood. However, technologies for the recovery of scandium, yttrium, and ytterbium from coal and ash slurry wastes are not well understood.

In 2001, in conjunction with USGS colleague Brenda Pierce,we analyzed coal bed samples from five open-pit mines by using ICP and other elemental analyses. Results indicated that industrial-grade concentrations of Li, Al, Sc, Ti, Fe, Ga, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Th, and U occur in these beds. Figure 18 presents the results of 467 analyses conducted on 104 Kuzbass coal beds. The recovery of Al, Fe, rare, and precious metals targeted for successive processing may become a highly profitable industry. Unfortunately, some economical barriers (including lack of investments in geology) hinder this undertaking. These problems may be successfully resolved through international partnership and cooperation.

Figure 18. Contents of elements in Kuzbass coal.

The Kuzbass Coal Basin—The Leading Coal Region of Russia

The Kemerovo region (oblast) occupies a territory of 95.5 thousand square kilometers and has a population of 3.2 million people, 2.8 million (87 percent) of which reside in cities. The region employs 1,799.5 thousand people, 87 percent of which are employed in the industrial sector and 6.2 percent of which are employed in education and training. The Kemerovo region's share in Russias produced national income is 18 percent.

Kuzbass balanced coal reserves are estimated at 57.2 billion metric tons—28.5 percent of Russias total reserves and 58.8 percent of Russia's total bituminous coal reserves. Coking coal reserves equal 30.1 billion metric tons or 73 percent of all national reserves (fig. 19). Explored reserves and those ready for industrial development total 25.4 billion metric tons, including 12.4 billion metric tons of coking coal. Nearly all bituminous coal ranks are mined in the Kuzbass basin, from long flamed to anthracite, but coal ranks used for coking (coking, fat, coking baked, lean baked, gas fat) and steam generation (long flamed, gas, lean, low baked) are predominant. Kuzbass coal is high in quality with ash yields of 8 to 22 percent, sulfur contents of 0.3 to 0.6 percent, and calorific values of 6,000 to 8,500 kcal/kg.

Figure 19. Kemerovo region's share in Russia's coal output and production processes.

The average depth of coal in underground mines in the Kuzbass basin reaches 315 m. (By comparison the Donetsk coal basin reaches 522 m in depth and the Pechorsky coal basin reaches 514 m.) About 40 percent of the coal mined is consumed by the Kemerovo region itself, and 60 percent is transported to other areas of West Siberia, the Urals, and central parts of Russia as well as exported to other countries. In the domestic market, Kuzbass coal accounts for 25 percent of the steam coal and 80 percent of the coking coal. In the export structure, Kuzbass accounts for about 70 percent of the physical volume.

Coal mining and associated industries of the Kemerovo region have undergone a broad-scale restructuring process that has already resulted in technologic and economic advances in their production. Among the new coal-mining areas of Kuzbass basin, Erunakovsky is considered one of the best prospects because of its huge, accumulated reserves of coking (4 billion metric tons) and steam coal (4.7 billion metric tons) at favorable mining and geological conditions. Currently, this area is under active development; construction of two mines is planned along with open pits of an advanced technical level. It is expected that these mines will be highly competitive under new market economy conditions and productive enough to compensate for decreasing coal yield at closing mines; they are also expected to create new, long-term, and subsidy-free jobs.

The Kuzbass basin is rich in other mineral resources as well. Large resources of manganese ore (98.5 million metric tons or 67 percent of Russia's reserves) were explored in the region, but they are not being extracted; the national demand is met by importing ore mainly from the Ukraine. Iron ore reserves in the Kuzbass are estimated at 999.2 million metric tons (2 percent of Russia's reserves), phosphorite at 43.7 million metric tons (0.6 percent), nepheline ore at 152.4 million metric tons (3 percent), and combustible shale at 43 million metric tons (2 percent).

Nevertheless Russia's general economic crisis, particularly as experienced by the coal industry during the transition period, had a strong negative impact in the Kuzbass coal industry as well. Russia's coal yield dropped significantly from 416 million metric tons in 1988 to 227.2 million metric tons in 1997. In the Kuzbass in 1997, coal output equaled 98 million metric tons, making 59.3 percent of the maximum of 159.2 million metric tons in 1988.

Coal industry restructuring targeting competitive coal enterprises has not achieved what was hoped in its initial stages. The original plans included closure of unprofitable mines (377 throughout Russia) and dismissal of coal industry workers without providing guarantees for other employment. In 1999, the coal industry employed 444,000 people less than it did in 1993. In the Kuzbass basin, 35 coal enterprises ceased functioning (approximately equivalent to closing every third mine). These closures displaced about 165,000 workers, 30 percent of whom were registered by the labor exchange and were later placed in jobs. Difficulties in obtaining jobs and the fear of unemployment have become the primary causes of social tensions in Russia's coal regions. The number of coal mine workers, as of June 2001 totaled 92,435 for the Kuzbas (61,915 in underground mines and 30,520 in strip mines). Figure 20 shows that an increase in coal production is ensured by labor productivity growth, and the number of workers involved in coa-mining processes is decreasing. Total average labor productivity for a miner in the Kuzbass constituted 115.2 metric tons per month (in open pit mines, 167 metric tons; in underground mines, 89.6 metric tons) (fig. 21). Restructuring progress in underground mines and open pits is accompanied by a growth in coal industry workers wages. In May 2001, the average salary was 5,114 RUR, constituting a 48.2 percent rise over June 2000.

Figure 20. Dynamics of coal output and number of workers engaged in coal mining.

Figure 21. Dynamics of average monthly labor productivity in coal mining.

The second stage (since 1998) of industry restructuring was more successful, but allocated state subsidies are not sufficient to create new jobs and to preserve normal social conditions in the Kuzbass. This challenge may be solved by the construction of new enterprises, which will require an improved legislative foundation that can guarantee immunities for potential investors. In this respect, many intelligent efforts are underway by the local regional administration. To decrease imbalances in the regional economy and in the field of coal consumption, additional domestic coal-market development requires a well-coordinated effort to eliminate any remaining factors that inhibit the coal enterprises economical progress. Therefore, the priority issue for the second stage of restructuring relates directly to a broader use of coal, which obviously requires close cooperation between strategic partners, including the coal, power engineering, metallurgy, and railroad industries. Attaining these goals will allow improved fuel balance and the security of the country's energy sufficiency. It is important to protect miners' jobs, even as progressive reforms go forward, in order to maintain and perfect the status of Russia's coal industry.

References

Lazarenko, S.N., and Kochetkov, V.N., 2000, A modern approach to mining of coal deposits: Mineral Resources of Russia, v. 2, p. 36–41. [In Russian.]

Patrakov, J.F., and Fyodorova, N.I., 2000, About possible directions of low quality coal and waste coal complex prefabrication in the Kuzbass basin: Ugol [Coal], v. 2, p. 60–62. [In Russian.]

Salamatin, A.G., 2000, About state and prospects of coal-water fuel utilization in Russia: Ugol [Coal], v. 3, p. 10–17. [In Russian.]

Zaidenward, V.E., Navitniy, A.M.,and Tverdochlevov, V.F., 1999, Coal source material basis of Russia: Its actual state and development prospects: Ugol [Coal], v. 9, p. 10–14. [In Russian.]

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