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[Hawaiian Chant]
E komo maloko o Halemaʻumaʻu

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He mau nā pu‘u e ‘olā‘olā nei
E Pele e Pele e Pele e Pele

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E Pele e Pele
Hū ‘a‘ina hū ‘a‘ina kū

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00:00:34,450 --> 00:00:46,840
Pahū pahū ‘ūhā ma‘i o ka lani ani
Pahū pahū ‘ūhā ma‘i o ka lani ani

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00:00:46,840 --> 00:00:53,040
Pahū pahū ‘ūhā ma‘i o ka lani ani

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Narrator: Unfolding before our eyes, on the
Island of Hawaiʻi, is a mesmerizing window

1
00:00:58,710 --> 00:01:07,210
into Kīlauea Volcano. When Mark Twain witnessed
a Kīlauea lava lake in 1866, he remarked

1
00:01:07,209 --> 00:01:14,579
that the sight “fascinated the eye with
its unapproachable splendor.” But the story

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of this lava lake is more than splendor.

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Noah Gomes (National Park Service Ranger):
Kīlauea, this volcano, in general, is a very

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sacred place.

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Halemaʻumaʻu crater, which is right behind
me, is even more sacred because that is literally

1
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the home of Pele, who is the volcano deity.

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[Christina Neal - HVO Scientist-in-Charge]:
Kīlauea has long been known to be a marvelous

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natural laboratory for the study of volcanoes,
because it is frequently active and very accessible.

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We have such wonderful science that we’re
doing here—tremendous insights into how

1
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the volcano works and how the lava lake behaves.

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[Narrator] The lava lake within Halemaʻumaʻu,
a crater at the summit of Kīlauea is one

1
00:02:09,520 --> 00:02:25,400
of the two largest lava lakes on Earth. There
are few features like this in the world.

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00:02:25,400 --> 00:02:31,781
The Island of Hawaiʻi is formed by five overlapping
volcanoes, with the youngest, Kīlauea, to

1
00:02:31,781 --> 00:02:38,989
the southeast. Kīlauea is one of the world’s
most active volcanoes. It began growing on

1
00:02:38,989 --> 00:02:46,549
the Pacific Ocean floor as far back as 600,000
years ago. Repeated eruptions piled lava flow

1
00:02:46,549 --> 00:02:53,300
upon lava flow, building a gently-sloped shield
volcano that eventually emerged above sea

1
00:02:53,300 --> 00:03:03,489
level. Today Kīlauea’s summit rises to
an elevation of just over 4,000 feet. About

1
00:03:03,489 --> 00:03:10,490
500 years ago the top of Kīlauea collapsed
forming the summit caldera we see today. Within

1
00:03:10,490 --> 00:03:15,879
this caldera is Halemaʻumaʻu crater.

1
00:03:15,878 --> 00:03:24,849
For centuries, Hawaiians chronicled an intimate
oral history of Kīlauea through chants. Written

1
00:03:24,849 --> 00:03:32,049
records began with the arrival of missionaries
in 1823. For the next one hundred years, a

1
00:03:32,049 --> 00:03:41,299
nearly continuous lava lake existed at Halemaʻumaʻu.
Its eruptions were a tremendous draw for visitors.

1
00:03:41,299 --> 00:03:47,629
When geologist Thomas Jaggar first came to
Kīlauea in 1909, he deemed it the ideal site

1
00:03:47,628 --> 00:03:55,098
for the systematic study of volcanic activity.
In 1912, he established the Hawaiian Volcano

1
00:03:55,098 --> 00:04:03,959
Observatory. Four years later, the national
park was created. Today, about half of Kīlauea

1
00:04:03,959 --> 00:04:08,520
lies within the boundaries of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes
National Park.

1
00:04:08,520 --> 00:04:16,060
In 1924, violent explosive eruptions doubled
the diameter of Halemaʻumaʻu to more than

1
00:04:16,060 --> 00:04:24,430
3,000 feet. After the explosions, short-lived
lava lakes occurred in Halemaʻumaʻu until

1
00:04:24,430 --> 00:04:34,430
1934. Then the entire volcano went quiet for
18 years. Lava returned to Halemaʻumaʻu

1
00:04:34,430 --> 00:04:42,629
in 1952, with intermittent eruptions until
1982. The summit of Kīlauea was then quiet

1
00:04:42,629 --> 00:04:43,969
until 2008.

1
00:04:43,970 --> 00:04:54,150
[Jeff Sutton - HVO Geochemist]: And by mid-January
the values of sulfur dioxide emissions from

1
00:04:54,149 --> 00:04:58,259
Kilauea's summit caldera were higher than
we'd seen them in over twenty years...and

1
00:04:58,259 --> 00:05:05,810
the numbers kept going up. And the overall
chemistry of those gases had changed dramatically.

1
00:05:05,810 --> 00:05:08,540
That's when we really knew that something
was up.

1
00:05:08,540 --> 00:05:17,569
[Narrator] At 2:58 a.m. on March 19, 2008,
Halemaʻumaʻu awoke with an explosion. As

1
00:05:17,569 --> 00:05:24,449
the first summit eruption in almost 26 years,
it was exciting! This explosion damaged the

1
00:05:24,449 --> 00:05:30,939
National Park overlook and ejected rocks large
enough to have caused serious injury or death

1
00:05:30,939 --> 00:05:37,949
had anyone been on the rim or trail. The next
morning, as U.S. Geological Survey scientists

1
00:05:37,949 --> 00:05:43,620
drove toward the crater, the crunching of
rocky debris beneath their vehicle’s tires

1
00:05:43,620 --> 00:05:49,090
was one of the first clues that something
big had happened.

1
00:05:49,089 --> 00:05:54,619
After the explosion, a hole, or vent, more
than 100 feet wide could be seen in the crater

1
00:05:54,620 --> 00:06:02,620
wall. Nighttime glow from this vent meant
that lava was just below the surface. Over

1
00:06:02,620 --> 00:06:09,630
the next few months, the lava level slowly
rose higher, and the vent grew wider. Views

1
00:06:09,630 --> 00:06:15,859
got better and better. Eventually, a lake
of molten lava within the vent could be seen

1
00:06:15,860 --> 00:06:19,860
from the rim of Halemaʻumaʻu.

1
00:06:19,860 --> 00:06:26,250
In 2015, the lake rose high enough that lava
briefly spilled onto the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu

1
00:06:26,250 --> 00:06:32,649
for the first time during the eruption. Today,
lava spattering on the lake’s surface is

1
00:06:32,649 --> 00:06:39,269
occasionally visible from the National Park’s
Jaggar Museum Overlook. Millions of visitors

1
00:06:39,269 --> 00:06:58,549
have—like Mark Twain—witnessed the splendor
of an active lava lake.

1
00:06:58,550 --> 00:07:08,990
Since 2008, the active vent within the crater
has grown due to collapses of the vent rim.

1
00:07:08,990 --> 00:07:17,930
By early 2017, the summit vent was more than
800 feet wide—and still growing.

1
00:07:17,930 --> 00:07:27,400
Today, the lava lake at the summit of Kīlauea
is one of two ongoing eruptions at the volcano.

1
00:07:27,399 --> 00:07:32,239
The other active vent is on Kīlauea’s East
Rift Zone, which has been erupting nearly

1
00:07:32,240 --> 00:07:39,420
non-stop since 1983. This is not the first
time two vents have erupted on Kīlauea at

1
00:07:39,420 --> 00:07:47,520
the same time. But the duration of these two
active vents is unmatched in recorded history.

1
00:07:47,519 --> 00:07:53,750
Since 1983 the ongoing East Rift Zone eruption
has covered more than 54 square miles with

1
00:07:53,750 --> 00:08:01,521
lava flows and has destroyed more than 200
structures, including scores of homes. The

1
00:08:01,521 --> 00:08:06,810
continuous monitoring of Hawaiian volcanoes
that was begun by Jaggar in 1912 continues

1
00:08:06,810 --> 00:08:07,810
today.

1
00:08:07,810 --> 00:08:14,120
[Christina Neal] One of the fabulous opportunities
we have right now, because of an ongoing simultaneous

1
00:08:14,120 --> 00:08:18,689
eruption along Kīlauea’s East Rift Zone
and the summit, is to look at this connection

1
00:08:18,689 --> 00:08:22,269
between the summit and East Rift Zone, the
magmatic plumbing connection.

1
00:08:22,269 --> 00:08:26,740
[Jim Kauahikaua - HVO Geophysicist] For everyone
at HVO it’s an unparalleled opportunity

1
00:08:26,740 --> 00:08:34,570
to study the hydraulics of the eruption, of
how Kīlauea works, it gives us a window into

1
00:08:34,570 --> 00:08:36,020
the magma chamber here.

1
00:08:36,019 --> 00:08:43,460
[Narrator] “I ka nānā no a ‘ike” is
a Hawaiian proverb that means “by observing,

1
00:08:43,460 --> 00:08:50,150
one learns.” And that’s certainly the
case for USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory

1
00:08:50,149 --> 00:08:58,720
scientists. Observing the physical processes
on Kīlauea, combined with today’s sophisticated

1
00:08:58,720 --> 00:09:05,490
monitoring instruments helps USGS scientists
develop a more complete picture of how volcanoes

1
00:09:05,490 --> 00:09:06,490
work.

1
00:09:06,490 --> 00:09:12,190
[Matt Patrick - HVO Geologist] This is a situation
where we actually have a large lava lake that’s

1
00:09:12,190 --> 00:09:17,240
easy to get to, so it’s really probably
one of the best research opportunities on

1
00:09:17,240 --> 00:09:20,810
Earth for understanding lava lake activity.

1
00:09:20,809 --> 00:09:26,209
[Narrator] Many questions about Kīlauea Volcano’s
summit eruption are being answered through

1
00:09:26,210 --> 00:09:30,080
careful field studies and lab analyses.

1
00:09:30,080 --> 00:09:39,000
[Don Swanson - HVO Geologist] We have a network
of ten buckets out here to collect ash that

1
00:09:39,000 --> 00:09:47,080
is ejected from the lava lake. The network
has existed since 2008. We do that so that

1
00:09:47,080 --> 00:09:53,710
we can keep track of how much ash is coming
out of the lake and, therefore, this gives

1
00:09:53,710 --> 00:10:00,330
us some idea of how gassy, how gas rich the
lava in the lake is. That’s a pretty good

1
00:10:00,330 --> 00:10:07,850
haul for the past 24 hours. Also we’re chemically
analyzing this ash so that we can tell if

1
00:10:07,850 --> 00:10:15,769
there are any chemical changes that are taking
place during the eruption.

1
00:10:15,769 --> 00:10:21,799
[Narrator] Gas emitted from the summit vent
can tell us a lot about what’s happening

1
00:10:21,799 --> 00:10:25,379
inside the volcano.

1
00:10:25,379 --> 00:10:32,259
[Jeff Sutton] One thing that we know about
the emissions of sulfur dioxide gas is that

1
00:10:32,259 --> 00:10:39,689
it’s tied to the amount of lava that’s
brought from depth up to atmospheric pressure.

1
00:10:39,690 --> 00:10:45,670
And it’s that process that occurs when lava
is erupted on the surface. So, by measuring

1
00:10:45,669 --> 00:10:53,129
the amount of sulfur dioxide that’s released
can tell us how much lava is being erupted

1
00:10:53,129 --> 00:10:59,490
on the surface. So, the FTIR instrument, we
point it down at the lava lake, using the

1
00:10:59,490 --> 00:11:04,629
heat off the lava lake it’s able to measure
the concentration of about six or seven gas

1
00:11:04,629 --> 00:11:11,379
species that are boiling out of the lake at
once, and we’re able to measure that about

1
00:11:11,379 --> 00:11:15,669
every 5 or 6 seconds, so we’re getting a
gas analysis every five or six seconds which

1
00:11:15,669 --> 00:11:17,319
is fantastic.

1
00:11:17,320 --> 00:11:23,950
[Narrator] Kīlauea emits more sulfur dioxide
than the largest coal burning power plant

1
00:11:23,950 --> 00:11:31,590
in the U.S. These emissions produce volcanic
air pollution, known in Hawaii as “vog.”

1
00:11:31,590 --> 00:11:38,920
[Jeff Sutton] Since 2008, the overall gas
emissions from Kīlauea essentially tripled.

1
00:11:38,919 --> 00:11:44,360
It’s a tremendous amount of gas. All of
that gas, the sulfur dioxide, irritating sulfur

1
00:11:44,360 --> 00:11:53,500
dioxide gas, and the sulfuric acid mist are
carried downwind to communities at the southern

1
00:11:53,500 --> 00:11:59,520
end of the island and then the wind patterns
carry those emissions up the Kona coast, where

1
00:11:59,520 --> 00:12:06,759
they affect people’s lives in that area.
So, this is a rather unique form of volcanic

1
00:12:06,759 --> 00:12:11,889
air pollution.

1
00:12:11,889 --> 00:12:22,189
[Narrator] One spectacular feature of the
eruption is Pele’s hair, delicate strands

1
00:12:22,190 --> 00:12:27,210
of volcanic glass that carpet the ground downwind
of the lava lake.

1
00:12:27,210 --> 00:12:37,610
[Don Swanson] Pele’s hair forms when gas
bubbles in the lava pop, burst, and little

1
00:12:37,610 --> 00:12:44,870
droplets fly out and then they develop a tail
on them. The tail is the Pele’s hair. Yeah,

1
00:12:44,870 --> 00:12:50,980
the Pele’s hair is glass, because it formed
from the liquid that cools very quickly, so

1
00:12:50,980 --> 00:12:56,330
it forms a glass. It’s very sharp. There’s
a very interesting lighting effect that takes

1
00:12:56,330 --> 00:13:02,100
place. When you’re looking into the sun,
and the sun’s at a fairly low angle, the

1
00:13:02,100 --> 00:13:07,450
Pele’s hair glistens like golden dry wheat
or something.

1
00:13:07,450 --> 00:13:14,970
[Narrator] Kīlauea’s summit eruption provides
an opportunity to observe and document the

1
00:13:14,970 --> 00:13:21,500
evolution of an active vent. These observations
sometimes require the use of cutting edge

1
00:13:21,500 --> 00:13:22,500
tools.

1
00:13:22,500 --> 00:13:28,610
[Matt Patrick] We also use LIDAR in collaboration
with researchers on the mainland. And that

1
00:13:28,610 --> 00:13:33,320
LIDAR, which is basically a fancy name for
laser scanning of the crater, that’s able

1
00:13:33,320 --> 00:13:39,480
to give us a really precise scan of that crater
geometry, so it’s a nice 3D model of the

1
00:13:39,480 --> 00:13:40,730
vent.

1
00:13:40,730 --> 00:13:45,490
[Narrator] Thermal cameras are another tool
used to study the lava lake.

1
00:13:45,490 --> 00:13:49,839
[Matt Patrick] So, the lava lake is set within
this crater. We actually call the crater,

1
00:13:49,839 --> 00:13:56,420
the new crater, the “Overlook crater”
because it opened just below the visitor overlook.

1
00:13:56,419 --> 00:14:02,620
So, in this Overlook crater, we have the lava
lake, and the lake is set sometimes very deep

1
00:14:02,620 --> 00:14:09,840
within the crater, and that crater is often
filled with fume. And obviously we want continuous

1
00:14:09,840 --> 00:14:13,910
observations of the lake, but the problem
is, with the naked eye, with normal camera

1
00:14:13,909 --> 00:14:20,480
systems, those views can often be obscured
by the thick fume. The fume is variable, it

1
00:14:20,480 --> 00:14:25,990
depends on the outgassing rates and also just
the wind conditions, but one thing that we

1
00:14:25,990 --> 00:14:31,960
found to very useful is using thermal cameras
to monitor that lake and look inside the crater.

1
00:14:31,960 --> 00:14:35,870
The benefit of the thermal camera is that
it can see through the fume all the time,

1
00:14:35,870 --> 00:14:40,299
so it really gives us continuous observations
of the lake. And obviously, when you’re

1
00:14:40,299 --> 00:14:45,120
monitoring volcanoes you want continuous,
24/7, observations. So, the thermal cameras

1
00:14:45,120 --> 00:14:49,240
have proven really effective at being a good
monitoring tool.

1
00:14:49,240 --> 00:14:54,180
[Narrator] Thermal cameras are just a part
of the sophisticated digital network managed

1
00:14:54,179 --> 00:15:00,959
by HVO field engineers. This network delivers
a constant stream of data on the volcano’s

1
00:15:00,960 --> 00:15:01,960
activity.

1
00:15:01,960 --> 00:15:06,660
[Kevan Kamibayashi - HVO Field Engineer]:
At a single site you could have a camera,

1
00:15:06,659 --> 00:15:12,139
you could have a gravimeter, you could have
a GPS station, you could have a tiltmeter.

1
00:15:12,139 --> 00:15:17,299
Part of the uniqueness of the network we have
monitoring that lake is that it’s so close

1
00:15:17,299 --> 00:15:25,219
in proximity to the observatory. That allows
us to have really high bandwidth radio links.

1
00:15:25,220 --> 00:15:33,120
That means that we can afford to do things
like stream HD video from the vent back here

1
00:15:33,120 --> 00:15:34,778
to HVO.

1
00:15:34,778 --> 00:15:43,528
[Don Swanson] The lava lake has to be fed
by lava that’s coming up a conduit. The

1
00:15:43,528 --> 00:15:49,000
lava spills into the lake, but then it has
to be recirculating and leaving the lake,

1
00:15:49,000 --> 00:15:54,429
otherwise the lake would fill up and spill
out. So, there is a kind of convection that

1
00:15:54,429 --> 00:15:59,439
is taking place. The lava is coming up at
the north end of the lake, flowing to the

1
00:15:59,440 --> 00:16:05,209
south end of the lake, and disappearing. The
reason that it’s dropping is that it’s

1
00:16:05,208 --> 00:16:12,028
losing gas and it’s cooling ever so slightly
as it moves across the lake, so it’s getting

1
00:16:12,028 --> 00:16:17,470
heavier. So, it’s slightly heavier than
the fresher magma that’s coming in, lava

1
00:16:17,470 --> 00:16:20,899
that’s coming in, so the whole thing circulates.

1
00:16:20,899 --> 00:16:26,939
[Narrator] The lava lake level responds to
pressure changes in the summit magma storage

1
00:16:26,940 --> 00:16:34,370
system, rising when pressure increases and
dropping when it decreases. These changes

1
00:16:34,370 --> 00:16:43,700
occur over a matter of hours or days, and
can shift the lava lake level by over 30 feet.

1
00:16:43,700 --> 00:16:48,400
Scientists are looking at the rise and fall
of the lava lake and how these changes impact

1
00:16:48,399 --> 00:16:50,250
the East Rift Zone eruption.

1
00:16:50,250 --> 00:16:56,740
[Matt Patrick] So, Kīlauea has two ongoing
eruptions, one at the summit and one on the

1
00:16:56,740 --> 00:17:03,069
East Rift Zone at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. And we’ve
known that those eruptions are connected in

1
00:17:03,070 --> 00:17:09,350
some way. But, this new concurrent activity
gives us new insight into that connection.

1
00:17:09,349 --> 00:17:14,980
One example of that connection is shown by
the changing lava levels. The lava lake level

1
00:17:14,980 --> 00:17:21,028
at the summit fluctuates commonly, and what
we observe at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō is, there’s

1
00:17:21,028 --> 00:17:25,999
often a small lava pond there, nothing like
the lake we have at the summit. A small lava

1
00:17:25,999 --> 00:17:32,169
pond at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō, and when we track
the level there, it’s basically in sync

1
00:17:32,169 --> 00:17:38,169
with the summit. And that makes sense because
they’re both basically fed magma from the

1
00:17:38,169 --> 00:17:43,149
summit magma chamber.

1
00:17:43,148 --> 00:17:51,488
[Narrator] Explosive events have occurred
throughout this eruption. Why they occur was

1
00:17:51,489 --> 00:17:57,009
initially a matter of speculation, but new
tools have shed light on their cause.

1
00:17:57,009 --> 00:18:02,389
[Matt Patrick] One of the interesting things
about this eruption, and was a bit puzzling

1
00:18:02,388 --> 00:18:06,829
at first, was that we’ve had a handful of
these small explosive events. These explosions

1
00:18:06,829 --> 00:18:11,178
have thrown volcanic bombs around the vent,
so obviously it’s not an area that you want

1
00:18:11,179 --> 00:18:16,528
to be when these explosions occur. And there
was a debate, there were several theories

1
00:18:16,528 --> 00:18:22,778
proposed, but what we were able to determine
based on geologic observations and also installing

1
00:18:22,778 --> 00:18:28,730
hi-res cameras around the vent, to look in
the vent, is that we were able to determine

1
00:18:28,730 --> 00:18:34,399
that these explosions from the lake were actually
triggered by large collapses of rock from

1
00:18:34,398 --> 00:18:40,159
the crater walls that were impacting the lake.
And the lake is very gas rich, so it’s very

1
00:18:40,160 --> 00:18:48,669
frothy, and when the rocks impacted the lake
they triggered these explosions.

1
00:18:48,669 --> 00:18:57,059
[Narrator] Many hazards are associated with
the Halemaʻumaʻu lava lake.

1
00:18:57,058 --> 00:19:02,079
[Christina Neal] Because of the ongoing hazards,
both from gas emission and potential ballistic

1
00:19:02,079 --> 00:19:06,609
impact at the rim, HVO scientists who go into
the area to conduct observations and make

1
00:19:06,609 --> 00:19:11,819
measurements follow a series of protocols
that we’ve established through dialog internally,

1
00:19:11,819 --> 00:19:17,450
including wearing hard hats, always having
a half face respirator around your neck to

1
00:19:17,450 --> 00:19:23,278
help you get out of the high gas concentration
area, and also, where possible, wearing fire-proof

1
00:19:23,278 --> 00:19:25,589
or fire-resistant clothing.

1
00:19:25,589 --> 00:19:33,199
[Narrator] The continuous study of active
volcanoes is necessary to issue timely, accurate

1
00:19:33,200 --> 00:19:35,069
warnings of volcano hazards.

1
00:19:35,069 --> 00:19:40,118
[Christina Neal] So we’re building on a
tremendous body of knowledge that goes back

1
00:19:40,118 --> 00:19:45,678
more than a century, using modern and sophisticated
tools to answer some of the very basic questions

1
00:19:45,679 --> 00:19:50,239
that were asked 100 years ago. One of the
important missions of the Hawaiian Volcano

1
00:19:50,239 --> 00:19:55,028
Observatory is to investigate and research
volcanic processes really to better understand

1
00:19:55,028 --> 00:19:59,919
how volcanoes work. And with that understanding
we can do a better job of advising about the

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nature and extent of hazards, all of this
in effect is to help people live safely with

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volcanoes which we must do, especially here
in the State of Hawaii, where we live on volcanoes.

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[Narrator] This is the longest Kīlauea summit
eruption since 1924, and there are no signs

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that it’s slowing down. But how long it
will last, remains to be seen.

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[Noah Gomes] There’s something about lava
that just inspires curiosity in humans. There’s

1
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so many mysteries surrounding these volcanoes.
There’s so much we don’t understand yet

1
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about how and why they work. This is like
peering back to the beginning of Earth.

1
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[Jim Kauahikaua] The opening up of the second
vent at Kīlauea was very rare and the fact

1
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that it lasted so long is unprecedented in
Kīlauea’s known history anyway.

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[Don Swanson] I think when people see lava,
not just for the first time, but see it at

1
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all, it’s a rather mesmerizing effect. You’re
used to seeing the Earth as being something

1
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solid, and here is rock, but it’s moving.
It’s liquid rock and it’s very hot. You

1
00:21:52,048 --> 00:21:59,200
can see that from the color and you can feel
the heat, and so it’s really a unique experience

1
00:21:59,200 --> 00:22:00,200
in nature.

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[Jeff Sutton] So, working at HVO is a remarkable,
remarkable experience. If you’re a gas geochemist,

1
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that’s going to put a song in your heart.
It’s allowing access to vents and fumaroles

1
00:22:15,700 --> 00:22:21,259
and one of the largest convecting lava lakes,
active lava lakes, on the planet.

1
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[Noah Gomes] In the case of Pele, her most
famous and obvious body forms are the lava

1
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itself, she is the eruption, she is the volcano,
she is the lava, she is the rocks after the

1
00:22:34,339 --> 00:22:40,378
lava cools, she is all this tephra that comes
out in the plume out here, she’s the gases

1
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coming out as well. So, all of this is Pele.
And all of this is part of what is sacred

1
00:22:46,960 --> 00:22:48,329
and part of what is to be respected.

1
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[Christina Neal] The fundamental scientific
analysis is both exciting and gives us great

1
00:22:52,528 --> 00:22:57,480
insight into how the volcanoes and the Earth
works, but it also allows us to help society

1
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live safely with volcanoes.