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U. S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-041

A Laboratory Manual for X-Ray Powder Diffraction

MIXED-LAYER CLAYS

Selected Bibliography


Abanfield, J.F., and Eggleton, R.A., 1990, Analytical transmission electron microscope studies of plagioclase, muscovite, and K-feldspar weathering: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 38, no. 1, p. 77-89.

Ahn, J.H., and Buseck, P.R., 1990, Layer-stacking sequences and structural disorder in mixed-layer illite/smectite; image simulations and HRTEM imaging: American Mineralogist, v. 75, no. 3-4, p. 267-275.

Amouric, Marc, and Olives, Juan, 1999, Transformations and interstratifications in clay minerals; HRTEM-AEM results and lattice energies calculations: Journal of Conference Abstracts, v. 4, p.641-642.

Barnhisel, R.I., and Bertsch, P.M., 1989, Chlorites and hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite and smectite, in Dixon, J.B., and Weed, S.B. (eds.) Minerals in soil environments, Soil Science Society of America Book Series, Madison, WI, p. 729-788.

Baronnet, A., 1997, Silicate microstructures at the sub-atomic scale: Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie II. Sciences de la Terre et des Planetes, v. 324, no. 3, p. 157-172.

Basov, E.I., 1994, The lithological composition and origin of the Black Sea mud volcano breccia: International Sedimentological Congress , v. 14, p. A4-A5. Monograph AutMabesoone, Jannes M. (chairperson)

Buatier, Martine, Honnorez, Jose, and Ehret, Gabrielle, 1989, Fe-smectite-glauconite transition in hydrothermal green clays from the Galapagos spreading center: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 37, no. 6, p. 532-541.

Buhmann, C., 1993, K-fixing phyllosilicates in soils; the role of inherited components: European Journal of Soil Science, v. 44, no. 2, p. 347-360.

Cetin, Kenan, and Huff, W.D., 1995, Characterization of untreated and alkylammonium ion exchanged illite/smectite by high resolution transmission electron microscopy: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 43, no. 3, p. 337-345.

Chaudhuri, S., and Brookins, D.G., 1979, The Rb-Sr systematics in acid-leached clay minerals: Chemical Geology, v. 24, no. 3-4, p. 231-242.

Churchman, G.J., Whitton, J.S., Claridge, G.G.C., and Theng, B.K.G., 1984, Intercalation method using formamide for differentiating halloysite form kaolinite: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 32, no. 4, p. 241-248.

Clauer, N., Srodon, J., Francu, J., and Sucha, V., 1997, K-Ar dating of illite fundamental particles separated from illite-smectite: Clay Minerals, v. 32, no. 2, p. 181-196.

Conkin, J.E., Rao Dasari, M., and Hutchinson, D.C., 1988, Recognition of very thin-mixed layer clay (smectite-illite) intervals in lower Paleozoic rock sequences by pyroclastic mineral euhedra: Program and Abstracts - Annual Clay Minerals Conference, Clay Minerals Society, v. 25, p. 97.

Corbato, C.E., and Tettenhorst, R.T., 1987, Analysis of illite-smectite interstratification: Clay Minerals, v. 22, no. 3, p. 269-285.

Cradwick, P.D., 1975, On the calculation of one-dimensional X-ray scattering from interstratified material: Clay Minerals, v. 10, no. 5, p. 347-356.

Curtis, C.D., 1986, Clay diagenesis, in Rodriguez-Clemente, R., and Tardy, Y. (eds.), Geochemistry and mineral formation in the Earth surface, Cons. Super. Invest. Cient., p. 585-596.

Czaplinski, A., and Holda, S., 1985, Changes in the compressive strength of sandstones from the Nowa Ruda Mine under the influence of the action of liquids and gases: Archiwum Gornictwa, v. 30, no. 3, p. 391-399.

Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J., 1975, An introduction to rock-forming minerals: Longman Group Ltd., London, 528 p.

Delvaux, B., Mestdagh, M.M., Vielvoye, L., and Herbillon, A.J., 1989, XRD, IR and ESR study of experimental alteration of Al-nontronite into mixed-layer kaolinite/smectite: Clay Minerals, v. 24, no. 4, p. 617-630.

Dong, Hailang, Hall, C.M., Peacor, D.R., Halliday, A.N., and Pevear, D.R., 2000, Thermal (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar separation of diagenetic from detrital illitic clays in Gulf Coast shales: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 175, no. 3-4, p. 309-325.

Drits, V.A., Varaxina, T.V., Sakharov, B.A., and Plancon, A., 1994, A simple technique for identification of one-dimensional powder X-ray diffraction patterns for mixed-layer illite-smectites and other interstratified minerals: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 42, no. 4, p. 382-390.

DuBois, L.G., and Prell, W.L., 1988, Effects of carbonate dissolution on the radiocarbon age structure of sediment mixed layers: Deep-Sea Research. Part A: Oceanographic Research Papers, 
v. 35, no. 12A, p. 1875-1885.

Dubinska, Elzbieta, Bylina, Pawel, and Sakharov, B.A., 1995, Corrensite from Naslawice (Lower Silesia, Poland); some problems of mineral identification and origin: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 43, no. 5,p. 630-636.

Durand, C., Szymanski, R., and Lombardo, N., 1988, Analytical electron microscopy as a complementary tool to investigate clays, as mixtures or mixed clayers: V. M. Goldschmidt conference, Geochem. Soc., p. 40.

Eberl, D.D., Srodon, Jan, Kralik, Martin, Taylor, B.E., and Peterman, Z.E., 1990, Ostwald ripening of clays and metamorphic minerals: Science, v. 248, no. 4954, p. 474-477.

Esser, K.B., 1990, X-ray diffraction indices for relative quantification of interlayering in phyllosilicates: Soil Science Society of America Journal, v. 54, no. 3, p. 923-926.

Farmer, V.C., Fraser, A.R., Russell, J.D., and Yoshinaga, N., 1977, Recognition of imogolite structures in allophanic clays by infrared spectroscopy: Clay Minerals, v. 12, no. 1, p. 55-57.

Ferrow, E., and Roots, M., 1989, A preparation technique for TEM specimens; application to synthetic Mg-chlorite: European Journal of Mineralogy, v. 1, no. 6, p. 815-819.

Garcia-Gonzalez, Mario, 1991, Hydrocarbon maturation and clay diagenesis in the Tolu area, northwestern Colombia: Master's Thesis, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, 154 p.

Garvie, L.A.J., 1993, INTERSTRAT; an expert system to help identify interstratified clay minerals from powder XRD data; I, Description of the program: Clay Minerals, v. 28, no. 3, p. 445-460.

Ghabru, S.K., St. Arnaud, R.J., and Mermut, A.R., 1988, Use of high gradient magnetic separation in detailed clay mineral studies: Canadian Journal of Soil Science, v. 68, no. 3, p. 645-655.

Gharrabi, M., Velde, B., and Sagon, J.P., 1996, XRD identification of two coexisting mixed layer expandable minerals in sedimentary rocks: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 44, no. 3, p. 429-436.

Gold, C.M., Cavell, P.A., and Smith, D.G.W., 1983, Clay minerals in mixtures; sample preparation, analysis, and statistical interpretation: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 31, no. 3, p. 191-199.

Grim, R.E., 1962, Applied clay mineralogy: McGraw-Hill, New York, 422 p.

Guggenheim, S., and Eggleton, R.A., 1988, Crystal chemistry, classification, and identification of modulated layer silicates, in Bailey, S.W. (ed), Hydrous phyllosilicates (exclusive of micas): Reviews in Mineralogy, v. 19, p. 675-725.

Guthrie, G.D., and Veblen, D.R., 1989, High-resolution transmission electron microscopy of mixed-layer illite/smectite; computer simulations: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 37, no. 1, p. 1-11.

Guthrie, G.D., Jr., and Veblen, D.R., 1990, Interpreting one-dimensional high-resolution transmission electron micrographs of sheet silicates by computer simulation: American Mineralogist, v. 75, no. 3-4, p. 276-288.

Hauff, P.L., Kruse, F.A., and Thiry, M., 1990, Characterization of interstratified kaolinite/smectite clays using infrared reflectance spectroscopy (1.2-2.5 mu m): Chemical Geology, v. 84, no. 1-4, p. 267-270.

Hauff, Phoebe, and Thiry, Medard, 1991, A method combining SWIR and XRD for the identification of clay minerals; I, Interstratified kaolinite/smectite clays: Program and Abstracts - Annual Clay Minerals Conference, Clay Minerals Society, v. 28, p. 69.

Helmy, A.K., Natale, I.M., and Elprince, A., 1982, The electric potential midway between overlapping clay flat double layers; a compilation of theoretical treatments: Zeitschrift fuer Pflanzenernaehrung und Bodenkunde, v. 45, no. 2, p. 140-150.

Hillier, S., Robinson, D., and Bevins, R.E., 1995, Mafic phyllosilicates in low-grade metabasites; characterization using deconvolution analysis; discussion and reply: Clay Minerals, v. 30, no. 1, p. 67-76.

Huff, W.D., 1974, Mineralogy and Provenance of Pleistocene Lake Clay in an Alpine Region: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 85, no. 9, p. 1455-1460.

Inoue, Atsuyuki, Bouchet, Alain, Velde, Bruce, and Meunier, Alain, 1989, Convenient technique for estimating smectite layer percentage in randomly interstratified illite/smectite minerals: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 37, no. 3, p. 227-234.

Klimentidis, R.E., and Mackinnon, I.D.R., 1986, High-resolution imaging of ordered mixed-layer clays: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 34, no. 2, p. 155-164.

Koester, H.M., and Vali, H., 1985, Swelling behaviour, structural disorder, regular and random irregular interstratification of 2:1 layer silicates studied by high-resolution images of transmission electron microscopy: Proceedings - International Clay Conference, v. 8, p. 128.

Laird, D.A., Scott, A.D., and Fenton, T.E., 1989, Evaluation of the alkylammonium method of determining layer charge: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 37, no. 1, p. 41-46.

Lynch, D.R., and Officer, C.B., 1984, Nonlinear parameter estimation for sediment cores: Chemical Geology, v. 44, no. 1-3, p. 203-225.

MacEwan, D.M.C., and Ruiz-Amil, A., 1975, Interstratified clay minerals, in Gieseking, J.E. (ed.), Inorganic components, Soil components, v. 2, Springer-Verlag, New York, , p. 265-334.

Mackinnon, I.D.R., 1982, Ordered mixed-layer structures in the Mighei carbonaceous chondrite matrix: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 46, no. 4, p. 479-489.

Maresch, W.V., Massonne, H.J., and Czank, M., 1985, Ordered and disordered chlorite/biotite interstratifications as alteration products of chlorite: Neues Jahrbuch fuer Mineralogie. Abhandlungen, v. 152, no. 1, p. 79-100.

Martinec, P., Weiss, Z., Skoda, V., and Strauch, R., 1979, Raman spectra of antigorite, chrysotile, vermiculite and mixed-layer biotite-vermiculite: Eighth conference on clay mineralogy and petrology, Univ. Karlova, Prague, Czechoslovakia, p. 91-95.

McHardy, W.J., and Birnie, A.C., 1987, Scanning electron microscopy, in Wilson, M.J. (ed.), A handbook of determinative methods in clay mineralogy, Chapman and Hall, New York, NY, p. 174-208.

Meunier, Alain, and Velde, Bruce, 1989, Solid solutions in I/S mixed-layer minerals and illite: American Mineralogist, v. 74, no. 9-10, p. 1106-1112.

Moore, D.M., and Reynolds, R.C., 1997, X-ray diffraction and the identification and analysis of clay minerals: 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 378 p.

Olives Banos, Juan, Amouric, Marc, de Fouquet, Chantal, and Baronnet, Alain, 1983, Interlayering and interlayer slip in biotite as seen by HRTEM: American Mineralogist, v. 68, no. 7-8, p. 754-758.

Olives Banos, Juan, Amouric, Marc, and Perbost, Regis, 2000, Mixed layering of illite-smectite; results from high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and lattice-energy calculations: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 48, no. 2, p. 282-289.

Paterson, E., and Swaffield, R., 1987, Thermal analysis, in Wilson, M.J. (ed.), A handbook of determinative methods in clay mineralogy, Chapman and Hall, New York, NY, p. 99-132.

Pittman, E.D., 1989, Problems related to clay minerals in reservoir sandstones, in Mason, J.F., and Dickey, P.A (eds.) Oil field development techniques; proceedings of the Daqing international meeting, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology, v. 28, p.237-244.

Plancon, A., Drits, V.A., Sakharov, B.A., Gilan, Z.I., Ben Brahim, J., 1983, Powder diffraction by layered minerals containing different layers and/or stacking defects; comparison between Markovian and non-Markovian models: Journal of Applied Crystallography, v. 16, no. 1, p. 62-69.

Rakhshandehroo, G.R., Wallace, R.B., Boyd, S.A., and Voice, T.C., 1998, Hydraulic characteristics of organomodified soils for use in sorptive zone applications: Soil Science Society of America Journal, v. 62, no. 1, p. 5-12.

Reynold, R.C., 1980, Interstratified clay minerals, in Brindley, G.W., and Brown, G. (eds.), Crystal structures of clay minerals and their X-ray identification, Chapter 4., Mineralogical Society, London, 249-303 p.

Reynolds, R.C., Jr., 1988, Mixed layer chlorite minerals, in Bailey, S.W. (ed), Hydrous phyllosilicates (exclusive of micas): Reviews in Mineralogy, v. 19, p. 601-629.


Rheams, K.F., Neathery, T.L., Copeland, C.W., and Rheams, L.J., 1983, Hydrocarbon assessment of the Chattanooga (Devonian) Shale in North Alabama, Northwest Georgia, and South Tennessee: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 67, no. 3, p. 539.

Righi, Dominique, and Elsass, Francoise, 1996, Characterization of soil clay minerals; decomposition of X-ray diffraction diagrams and high-resolution electron microscopy: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 44, no. 6, p. 791-800.

Sawnhey, B.J., 1977, Interstratification in layer silicates, in Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B., Kittrick, J.A., Milford, M.H., and White, J.L. (eds.), Minerals in soil environments, Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Madison, Wis., p. 405-434.

Sears, S.K., 1993, Effects of sample treatment on mixed-layer illite-smectite in X-ray diffractograms and transmission electron micrographs: Master's Thesis, McGill University, Montreal, PQ.

Srodon, Jan, 1980, Precise identification of illite/smectite interstratifications by X-ray powder diffraction: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 28, no. 6, p. 401-411.

Srodon, Jan, Andreoli, Cristina, Elsass, Francoise, and Robert, Michel, 1990, Direction high-resolution transmission electron microscopic measurement of expandability of mixed-layer illite smectite in bentonite rock: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 38, no. 4, p. 373-379.

Sucha, V., Srodon, Jan, Elsass, Francoise, McHardy, W. J., 1996, Particle shape versus coherent scattering domain of illite/smectite; evidence from HRTEM of Dolna Ves clays: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 44, no. 5, p. 665-671.

Tettenhorst, Rodney, and Grim, R.E., 1975, Interstratified clays; I, Theoretical: American Mineralogist, v. 60, no. 1-2, p. 49-59.

Tettenhorst, Rodney, and Grim, R.E., 1975, Interstratified clays; II, Some experimental results: American Mineralogist, v. 60, no. 1-2, p. 60-65.

Thomson, J.L., and Salisbury, J.,W., 1993, The mid-infrared reflectance of mineral mixtures (7-14 mu m): Remote Sensing of Environment, v. 45, no. 1, p. 1-13.

Tromp, D.E., 1995, Clays as indicators of depositional and diagenetic conditions in Pennsylvanian black shales, Paradox Basin, Utah and Colorado: Master's Thesis, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 152 p.

Vali, H., and Hesse, R., 1991, Visualisation of expandable and non-expandable components of mixed-layer clay minerals by a new HRTEM preparation technique: Program with Abstracts - Geological Association of Canada; Mineralogical Association of Canada; Canadian Geophysical Union, Joint Annual Meeting, v. 16, p. 126.

Veblen, D.R., Guthrie, G.D., Jr., Livi, K.J.T., and Reynolds, R.C., Jr., 1990, High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and electron diffraction of mixed-layer illite/smectite; experimental results: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 38, no. 1, p. 1-13.

Vogel, A.P., O'Connor, C.T., and Kojima, M., 1990, Thermogravimetric analysis of the isobutene oligomerization activity of various forms of synthetic mica-montmorillonite: Clay Minerals, v. 25, no. 3, p. 355-362.

Weaver, C.E., 1956, The distribution and identification of mixed-layer clays in sedimentary rocks: American Mineralogist, v. 41, no. 3-4, p. 202-221.

Wilson, M.D., and Pittman, E.D., 1977, Authigenic clays in sandstones; recognition and influence on reservoir properties and paleoenvironmental analysis: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 47, no. 1, p. 3-31.

Wilson, M.J., 1987, X-ray powder diffraction methods, in Wilson, M.J. (ed.) A handbook of determinative methods in clay mineralogy, Chapman and Hall, New York, NY, p. 26-98.

Wong, C.S., Bellegay, R.D., and Cornford, A.B., 1975, Measurable inorganic carbon parameters in seawater: American Society for Testing and Materials Special Technical Publication 573, p. 47-57.

Wright, A.C., 1975, Closed form equations for X-ray diffraction by interstratified clay systems; I, Randomly occurring interlamellar species: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 23, no. 4, p. 278-288.

Wu Xiuling, Meng Dawei, Pan Zhaolu, Yang Guangming, and Li Douxing, 1998, Transmission electron microscopic study of new, regular, mixed-layer structures in calcium-rare-earth fluorocarbonate minerals: Mineralogical Magazine, v. 62, no. 1, p. 55-64.

Xu, Huifang, Buseck, P.R., and Luo Gufeng, 1994, Periodic and nonperiodic interstratification in the chlorite-pyrophyllite series: Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America, v. 26, no. 7, p. 165.


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