U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 03-405

Eastern Region
Northeast Focus Area

Coastal Ecosystems and Resources Framework for Science

John Bratton, Glenn Guntenspergen, Bruce Taggart, Douglas Wheeler, Lynn Bjorklund, Michael Bothner, Rama Kotra, Robert Lent, Ellen Mecray, Hilary Neckles, Barbara Poore, Stephen Rideout, Susan Russell-Robinson, and Peter Weiskel

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• Fluxes of Water, Nutrients, Sediment, and Contaminants
• Coastal Hazards
• Urbanization and Habitat Change

• Acadia National Park, Maine
• Great Bay/Piscataqua River Estuary
• Merrimack River and adjacent estuary-salt marsh systems
• Boston Metropolitan Area: Charles River/Boston Harbor/Massachusetts Bay
• Cape Cod
• Narragansett Bay
• Southern New England Coastal Ponds
• Coastal Department of Defense Facilities
• Connecticut River/Long Island Sound

• Increasing our understanding of the movement of chemical and biological agents and sediment through coastal ecosystems and their effects on biota and water quality
• Using emerging technologies such as LIDAR and merged topographic/bathymetric data sets and new modeling and visualization tools to develop vulnerability assessments for coastal areas and to predict shoreline change, sea level rise, and the loss of wetlands
• Developing a better understanding of the links between past, current and future landuse practices and water, sediment concentrations, and biological communities to better predict the impacts of coasta urbanization and sprawl
• Leveraging long-term databases and monitoring to develop scientific information and new decision support tools to guide restoration efforts in the coastal zone

Acknowledgements

INTRODUCTION

Map showing Northeast coastal area

GEOGRAPHIC SETTING OF THE NORTHEAST COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND RESOURCE FOCUS AREA

USGS ROLE IN INTEGRATED SCIENCE IN THE NORTHEAST

PRIORITIZING INTEGRATED SCIENCE ISSUES IN THE NORTHEAST

Schematic diagram showing important natural processes and human pressures that affect coastal ecosystems and resources of the Northeast.

RATIONALE FOR INTEGRATED SCIENCE THEMES

LONG-TERM SCIENTIFIC ISSUES

Fluxes of Water, Nutrients, Sediment, and Contaminants

1. Critical coastal wetland habitats: Coastal wetlands provide essential habitat for fish, crabs, shellfish, and migratory waterfowl. We need to understand the roles of freshwater and sediment flux in the function of natural salt marshes, so that (1) healthy marshes can be properly protected, (2) marsh loss can be slowed or reversed, and (3) marshes degraded by various human activities can be restored. Linkages between variations in ground-water discharge and quality and changes in the health and diversity of marsh vegetation are not well understood. In developed systems, fluxes of sediment and water must be affordably managed to optimize the quality of marsh habitat while still providing sufficient drinking water, recreationally appealing beaches, navigable harbors, and safe disposal of wastewater. Marsh habitat distribution has changed naturally through time and is likely to continue to do so in the future, but the ability to predict future evolution of salt marshes is in its infancy. The need is made more urgent by the threat of marsh drowning by rising sea level.
2. Distribution, movement, and fate of toxic substances: Contaminated sediments have been known to exist in rivers and coastal areas of the Northeast for decades and have created chronic human health risks and ecological degradation. It should now be possible, however, to use existing data on sediment quality to guide risk-based prioritization of future research on the fate of toxic substances in sediments of the region. Better science can be applied to containment and removal of toxic legacy sediments in industrialized areas and in dam reservoirs to maximize health benefits and minimize costs. Techniques to determine optimal geochemical and biological indicators need to be developed to monitor ecosystem recovery after remediation of degraded areas or to assess impacts during and after disturbance of contaminated sediments by dredging or construction. The USGS has a strong and recognized history of work on this topic, including large regional studies and focused process studies incorporating innovative sampling and analysis methods. The USGS should also be prepared to respond to research and mitigation opportunities created by future catastrophic releases of harmful substances (for example, oil spills).
3. Coastal aquifer interconnections with the sea: The critical role of coastal ground-water discharge in different types of coastal ecosystems such as sea-grass beds, salt marshes, and beaches has become clear within the last decade, but the details remain to be worked out. It has also been hypothesized that coastal ground-water discharge may play a role in coastal erosion, but this idea remains untested. Coastal aquifers can carry pollutants to coastal waters or provide conduits for saltwater intrusion to contaminate water-supply wells. The suite of tools available for studying submarine ground-water discharge and saltwater intrusion in different coastal settings such as barrier islands, lagoons, coastal bays, rocky coasts, and salt marshes has been greatly expanded in recent years, with the USGS leading much of this progress. Pressing questions remain about whether general models or realistic conceptual models of saltwater-freshwater interaction in the subsurface can be developed so that unstudied sites can be characterized and managed efficiently and affordably. Numerical models also hold great promise as tools for testing conceptual models of interaction as well as for integrating data from field tests.
4. Nutrient fluxes from wastewater: Wastewater is often considered the most significant source of nutrients, in terms of both quantity and impact, that cause eutrophication of estuaries and the coastal ocean in the Northeast. This assumption, however, has not been rigorously tested in many important settings. Differentiating natural and anthropogenic sources and variability of nutrient inputs is rarely straightforward. Seasonality of wastewater discharge may be an important aspect in the appearance of harmful algal blooms that has not been fully considered in many coastal settings. Although relative impacts of diffuse discharges of wastewater such as those that occur from septic systems in low-density residential areas are likely to affect ecosystems differently than the more concentrated discharge from treatment plant outfalls and infiltration basins, such comparative studies are rare, albeit essential, for regional wastewater management decisions. Water-supply and wastewater disposal issues are currently limiting development in many coastal communities, with increasing problems likely in the future. The multidisciplinary USGS mandate here is obvious.
5. River-seashore sediment interaction: Episodic events such as storms and spring freshet are important in creating and modifying watershed, shoreline, and nearshore sediment deposits, but their role relative to that of long-term prevailing winds and currents is generally difficult to assess. The time lag between release of sediments by human disturbance such as logging, agriculture, or fire and their transport through watersheds to estuaries and the coastal ocean is important to understand but is relatively unconstrained in most watersheds of the Northeast. Modification of watersheds and shorelines by construction or removal of engineered structures such as dams, jetties, or seawalls and other human alterations of the shoreline and nearshore such as dredging and beach nourishment affects the short- and long-term evolution of the sediment system. Insufficient baseline information makes it difficult to assess the impacts of many of these modifications and makes prediction of response risky. Current modeling, experimentation, and monitoring efforts should be expanded in the future to address these issues. The USGS has taken a leadership role in this area over the past decade, and opportunities continue to present themselves.

Coastal Hazards

Wetlands habitat

1. Sea-level rise: Substantial damage to human and biological populations, infrastructure, and natural resources such as wetlands can result from sea-level rise. The impact of sea-level rise on the processes sustaining coastal estuaries and wetland habitat, including the ability of coastal wetlands to maintain marsh surface elevation in the tidal range, shoreline inundation, and increased salinization of coastal embayments affecting fishery and shellfish populations, needs additional study. Where are the wetlands that are at greatest risk to increases in sea-level rise? Wetland loss will be largest where human development impedes the natural landward migration of wetlands in response to sea-level rise.
2. Hazardous storms: We need to better understand the impact of atmospheric storms on coastal erosion, especially erosion of barrier islands and shoreline by storm-induced shoreline flooding and wetland loss. It is critical that we better understand the links between coastal geomorphic processes and habitat and ecosystem change. Long-term erosion adds greatly to the societal risks and costs in coastal areas. This erosion can be exacerbated by human activities that include dredging of ports and harbors, maintenance of tidal inlets, and damming of major rivers.
3. Responses to climate variability and change: We need to better understand how biological and ecological systems will respond to climate change and variability and intensive human activity. How can we characterize and reduce key uncertainties of the impacts associated with climate change and variability? The coastal zone may be the region of the Nation most vulnerable to long-term climate change. The coastal zone will have to contend with changing rates of sea-level rise and could be subjected to more frequent and intense storms. Responses to such physical processes could cause increased coastal flooding and erosion, higher storm surges, increased wind damage, and increased saltwater intrusion into coastal freshwater aquifers.

Urbanization and Habitat Change

1. Availability and quality of water resources: Although it is true that the Northeast is known for an abundance of water, the availability of this important natural resource is becoming more critical owing to continued coastal urbanization and sprawl. The USGS is uniquely prepared to map and model the distribution, flow, and transport characteristics of surface- and ground-water resources to better understand the impact of urbanization and sprawl on coastal watersheds -- in particular, the quantity and quality of these waters and the nature of their interactions in coastal marine environments such as wetlands, harbors, bays, and estuaries.
2. Impacts of urbanization on habitat health: The development of coastal urban centers and sprawl in the Northeast has had -- and continues to have -- a direct impact on the structure, function, integrity, and sustainability of coastal ecosystems. Interdisciplinary science opportunities for the USGS on the impact of coastal urbanization on habitat include the investigation, quantification, and monitoring of the:

1. Effects of streamflow depletion and water quality on habitat condition and ecosystem sustainability;
2. Impact on coastal ecosystems of nutrient loading to coastal waters from surface- and ground-water, and atmospheric sources;
3. Impact of invasive species on the structure, function, and sustainability of native plants and animals inhabiting coastal ecosystems; and,
4. Effectiveness of restoration efforts in salt marshes, eutrophied embayments, commercial and recreational fisheries and shellfish beds, and disturbed eel grass habitats affected by urban sprawl.

3. Impacts of Urbanization on Human Health: Continued development of coastal urban centers and urban expansion into formerly rural areas of the Northeast will challenge society's ability to protect residents and visitors from natural and manmade health risks. The coastal zone (at ports of entry) is also the site of import of most invasive species, including pathogens such as Lyme disease and West Nile virus that affect not only terrestrial biota but human health as well. The USGS is well positioned to study the sources, transport mechanisms, and fates of toxic metals, volatile organic compounds, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and pathogens in surface and ground water, to provide a better understanding of the impacts of the urban environment and the recreational use of urban habitats on human health.
4. Coastal Contamination: Urban harbors in the Northeast sequester a legacy of sediment contaminants associated with sewage and industrial discharges. Seven of the top 100 ports in the United States are in the Northeast: (#, millions of tons of cargo handled in 2001): Portland, Me. (#26, 28.5), Boston, Mass. (#33, 20.6), New Haven, Conn. (#52, 9.9), Providence, R.I. (#57, 9.0), Bridgeport, Conn. (#81, 4.6), Portsmouth, N.H. (#82, 4.4), and Fall River, Mass. (#93, 3.4). In addition, dozens of small coastal embayments throughout the Northeast are experiencing elevated nutrient (especially nitrogen) and bacteria loading from suburban development on their shores. The distribution of these contaminants, their toxicological effects, and the results of recent harbor restoration efforts are all areas of important potential study for the USGS.

Graph showing incidence of Lyme disease, 1994-1996

GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS AREAS FOR INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Gulf of Maine

Massachusetts Bay

Map showing 1990 Cape Cod land cover

Southern New England

The size, interstate location, and history of previous USGS work in the river make it a logical choice for integrated mountains-to-sea flux studies of water and sediment, integrated with ecological studies of anadromous fish and migratory birds. Natural resource management agencies, water-resource users and interested non-governmenal organizations seek scientific information to guide decisions about sustainable human uses that are compatible with maintaining functional ecosystems in a heavily populated area.

Connecticut River Valley

• Nitrogen management and establishment of total maximum daily load (TMDL) criteria, including understanding non-point sources and in-stream loss of nitrogen caused by denitrification.
• The role of dams that impound significant amounts of sediment (especially toxic sediment) or that have recently been removed or are under consideration for removal.
• Integration of existing sediment and contaminants data from Long Island Sound with watershed data (a major priority).
• The response of the marsh surface to changes in the rates of sea-level rise and the implications for change in the vegetative composition of these marshes
• Sources of bacteria presently impacting coastal areas of Long Island Sound used for shellfishing and recreation.
• Sediment dynamics in Long Island Sound in the vicinity of its mouth.
• Water availability and quality through changes in land use and economic conditions associated with development and their effects on the balance of natural systems within the watershed and associated portions of Long Island Sound.

ACTION PLAN RECOMMENDATIONS

SCIENCE

1. Develop the ability to quantify important sources, sinks, and biological interactions of sediment and fresh water in salt marsh habitats with the goal of optimizing marsh management and restoration and predicting marsh evolution.
2. Increase our understanding of the influence of sediment geochemical processes on benthic communities present in moderately to very contaminated harbor sediments by conducting field and laboratory experiments.
3. Transform the existing marine sediment database being developed for the Northeast into a useful tool for research and management.
4. Make the development and testing of numerical models of sediment transport and saltwater-freshwater interaction in the subsurface a priority.
5. Continue development and application of analytical techniques that make it possible to (a) identify discrete sources of pollutants by various innovative fingerprinting techniques (bacterial DNA, isotopic ratios of heavy metals, isotopic nutrient tracers) and (b) follow their movement through ecosystems.

1. Develop vulnerability assessments for specific geographic priority areas.
2. Monitor shoreline change in National Parks and coastal refuges.
3. Develop a consistent topographybathymetry database.
4. Develop better models of the susceptibility of coastal wetlands to sea-level rise.
5. Develop a framework for interdisciplinary research that provides a better understanding of how sea-level rise, flooding of coastal embayments, and loss of wetlands will affect economically important fish populations.
6. Develop models that predict the impact of changing storm frequency on coastal erosion.
7. Develop decision support models that utilize web technology, spatial data, and visualization to identify areas at risk from coastal hazards.
8. Determine how predicted changes in climate and climatic variability may affect coastal habitat restoration efforts and how these impacts can be mitigated.

1. Continue long-term monitoring, assessment, and evaluation of coastal water resources, habitat health, and contamination in urban watersheds and coastal environments.
2. Develop geographic information system (GIS) coverages to provide insights into past, present, and future trends of coastal urbanization and sprawl in the Northeast and their impacts on the coastal zone.
3. Develop seamless bathymetric/topographic and geologic coverages for the Northeast and its adjacent continental shelf to make possible integrated modeling efforts across the land/sea interface in support of coastal planning and management efforts in coastal ports, towns, and recreational areas.
4. Develop a detailed bedrock and surficial geology map coverage of the Northeast to use in better understanding the impacts and demands of coastal development on water quality and availability in coastal aquifers and watersheds.
5. Develop a better understanding of the linkage among current and past land-use practices to water, sediment concentrations, and biological communities to provide insights into past, present, and future impacts of coastal urbanization and sprawl on the coastal zone in the Northeast.

MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATIONS

1. Define metrics for evaluating progress on execution of this plan and assign the task of regular evaluation to an individual or committee.
2. Review and update this science plan on a biannual basis relative to #1, possibly in association with the meeting described below. Pay particular attention to developing issues such as marine wind farms and dam removal.
3. Develop a specific mechanism by which the priorities identified in this plan can be (a) incorporated into the USGS science prospectus and (b) used to evaluate proposals received through the BASIS+ system.

1. Prepare annual progress reports on significant regional science achievements related to the focus of this plan. E-mail to USGS scientists and managers and post on web page (see below).
2. Develop and maintain a web-based catalog of science projects being conducted in the region that will provide easy access to current work and expertise in all disciplines.
3. Encourage temporary or permanent colocation of scientists from multiple disciplines at USGS science centers in the region.
4. Establish a biannual one-day Northeast science exchange workshop to be hosted on a revolving basis by Northeast regional USGS centers where scientists can highlight recent work in the region in short oral presentations and posters. The meeting will take place in January or February to allow scientists from different disciplines to collaborate in preparation of proposals for submission in the spring and for joint summer field efforts.
5. Develop an award to be presented annually to USGS scientists working in the region whose work performed or products released in that calendar year were exemplary in integrating multiple disciplines in scientific problem solving.

1. Increase the visibility of USGS contributions and ongoing investigations to Federal, State, and local government officials (and their staff), including senators and representatives, governors, mayors, and selectmen. Particularly highlight outcomes and efforts producing cost savings, generating revenue, or having immediate human benefit.
2. Build better collaborative relationships with other Federal agencies (USFWS, NPS, USACE, EPA, NOAA, NASA, and so on), State and municipal agencies (State geological surveys, departments of environmental management, parks and recreation agencies), academic institutions, research laboratories, media outlets, and trade groups (fishing, tourism, development, utilities, transportation, environmental consulting, environmental law) working in the Northeast. Formalize contacts and distribution of science plans, press releases, and relevant publications and continue to include collaborators in the USGS science planning process.
3. Fully engage in regional efforts that fit the goals and objectives of the USGS science framework for New England coastal research. In particular, participate, as able, in the New England Region Implementation Team (NERIT) of Coastal America. Also foster growth of the new North Atlantic Coast Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit (CESU), directed by the University of Rhode Island Coastal Institute.
4. Develop stronger relationships with entities, such as environmental non-governmental organizations, in the region that manage substantial natural areas (over 2 million acres in New England). This includes but is not limited to the Audubon Society (<45,000 acres), The Nature Conservancy (750,000 acres), the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests (120,000 acres), Trustees of Reservations in Massachusetts (35,000 acres), and umbrella organizations such as the Land Trust Alliance.
5. Maintain contact with regional, national, and international environmental advocacy and policy groups such as the Gulf of Maine Council, the Conservation Law Foundation, the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Sierra Club, theWorld Wildlife Federation, Environmental Defense, and the John Heinz Center for the Environment.

SELECTED REFERENCES