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USGS Professional Paper 1655

Irrigation-Induced Contamination of Water, Sediment, and Biota in the Western United States - Synthesis of Data from the National Irrigation Water Quality Program

By Ralph L. Seiler, Joseph P. Skorupa, David L. Naftz, and B. Thomas Nolan

Report Version 1.1, released November 2003

Table of Contents

Abstract
Introduction
Creation of National Irrigation Water Quality Program
Summary of National Irrigation Water Quality Program
Approach and objectives of National Irrigation Water Quality Program Data-Synthesis Project
Purpose and scope
Acknowledgments
Literature review
  • Historical perspective
  • Previous National Irrigation Water Quality Program evaluations
Methods used
Data collection
  • Study-area selection
  • Site selection and sampling schedule
  • Protocols for data collection and chemical analysis
    • Water
    • Sediment
    • Biota
Data synthesis
  • Data base
    • Availability
    • Introduction and structure
    • Sources of data
    • Data manipulation and quality assurance
  • Data interpretation
    • Statistical methods
    • Geochemical methods
    • Geographic Information Systems
    • Biological methods
Data synthesis
National Irrigation Water Quality Program Data Base
  • Descriptive summary
  • Statistical bias
Limitations of data
  • Sampling-site agreement
  • Matrix selection
  • Species selection
  • Tissue selection
Identification of contaminants in water and sediment
  • Standards, criteria, and guidelines used
  • Summary statistics and comparison to criteria
  • National Irrigation Water-Quality Program study-area comparisons
    • Dissolved solids
    • Arsenic
    • Boron
    • Molybdenum
    • Selenium
      • Surface water
      • Ground water
      • Bottom sediment
    • Uranium
    • Pesticides
  • Contaminant associations
    • Relation between major-ion and trace-element concentrations in surface water
    • Relation between contaminant concentrations in surface water and bottom sediment
    • Relation between total- and filtered-contaminant concentrations in surface water
Conceptual model of selenium contamination in irrigated areas
Selenium biogeochemistry
Enrichment of selenium in rocks
Enrichment of selenium in soils and ground water in irrigated areas
Enrichment of selenium in water in fish and wildlife habitat
Incorporation of selenium into the food chain and wildlife exposure to it
Implications of the conceptual model
Physical and chemical processes involving selenium in NIWQP areas
Selenium concentrations
Sources of selenium
  • Distribution of seleniferous rocks in the Western United States
  • Sources of selenium in National Irrigation Water Quality Program Study areas
Climate
Hydrology
  • Effects of terminal water bodies on selenium concentrations
  • Effects of upstream sources of selenium
Temporal changes in selenium concentrations
Interrelation of geology, climate, and hydrology
Selenium in biota
Effects of selenium on animals
Selenium guidelines
Summary statistics and comparison with guidelines
National Irrigation Water Quality Program study-area comparisons
  • Sample bias
  • Plants
  • Aquatic invertebrates
  • Fish
  • Birds
    • Liver
    • Eggs
Taxonomic and feeding guild analysis of avian-egg data
Prediction of selenium contamination of water
Prediction using geologic, climatic, and hydrologic data
  • Broad geographic areas
  • Individual locations
  • Limitations of these predictive tools
Prediction using logistic-regression model
Prediction using major-ion chemistry
  • Geochemical and statistical tools used in model development
  • Creation of classification model
  • Application of classification model
Recommendations for use of predictive tools
Avian-egg risk assessment
Environmental contamination and risk assessment
Choice of risk metric
Reasons for focus on selenium
Teratogenic-risk assessment
Multielement teratogenic-response data
Relevance of arsenic and mercury
Teratogenic-response curves for selenium exposure
National Irrigation Water Quality Program teratogenic-risk assessment
National Irrigation Water Quality Program embryo-viability assessment
Demographic context of projected avian effects
Relation between selenium in water, sediment, and biota
Summary and conclusions
References cited

ILLUSTRATIONS

1-2. Maps showing:

    1. Location of 191 areas in the Western United States evaluated for irrigation-drainage problems by National Irrigation Water Quality Program task group
    2. Location of 26 National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas selected because of potential irrigation-drainage water-quality problems
  1. Diagram showing structure and linking attributes of National Irrigation Water Quality Program data base
  2. Histogram of molybdenum concentrations in surface-water samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas

5-10. Box plots showing concentrations of constituents from source-water sites and from sites in and downstream from irrigated areas:

    1. Total dissolved solids in surface water
    2. Arsenic in surface water, ground water, and bottom sediment
    3. Boron in surface water, ground water, and bottom sediment
    4. Molybdenum in surface water, ground water, and bottom sediment
    5. Selenium in source water used for irrigation and in surface water, ground water, and bottom sediment
    6. Uranium in surface water, ground water, and bottom sediment
  1. Graph showing relation between uranium and total dissolved-solids concentrations in ground water
  2. Box plots showing concentrations of total DDT (DDT plus metabolites) in surface water and bottom sediment in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  3. Graph showing principal-components analysis results, showing trace-element loadings and study-area scores

14-19. Graph showing relation between:

    1. Median molybdenum and boron concentrations in surface water from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
    2. Boron and molybdenum, boron and chloride, and molybdenum and chloride concentrations in surface-water sampled from two National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
    3. Median concentrations of selected trace elements in surface water and in <0.062-millimeter-fraction bottom sediment in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
    4. Concentrations of selected trace elements in surface water and in <0.062-millimeter-fraction bottom sediment at individual data-collection sites
    5. Trace-element concentrations in bottom sediment and product of percentage organic carbon in <0.062-millimeter-fraction bottom sediment and trace-element concentrations in surface water
    6. Concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, boron, molybdenum, and selenium in filtered and in unfiltered surface water
  1. Map showing location of areas in Western United States where potentially seleniferous rocks form bedrock
  2. Box plot showing statistical summary of selenium concentrations in filtered surface-water samples showing association of Upper Cretaceous marine sedimentary rocks and elevated selenium concentrations
  3. Map showing evaporation index in Western United States
  4. Box plot showing statistical summary of selenium concentrations in filtered surface-water samples from lakes, ponds, and marshes, demonstrating association of elevated selenium concentrations and terminal hydrologic systems

24-26. Graphs showing:

    1. Selenium concentrations in surface water, Sun River area, Montana, 1990-93
    2. Seasonal changes in selenium concentrations in deep and shallow wells near North Roadside Pond, middle Green River Basin, Utah, 1988-93
    3. Selenium concentrations in Rasmus Lee Lake, Kendrick Reclamation Project, Wyoming, during March-April 1988 and March-April 1989
  1. Graph showing relations between selenium concentrations, climate data, and geology for 26 National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas

28-30. Box plots showing:

    1. Selenium concentrations in plants, aquatic invertebrates, fish, birds (livers and eggs) in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
    2. Geometric-mean concentrations of selenium in sets of avian eggs from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
    3. Geometric-mean concentrations of selenium in sets of waterbird eggs from three feeding guilds

31-32. Maps showing locations of:

    1. Areas in Western United States that are identified as susceptible to irrigation-induced selenium contamination on basis of Upper Cretaceous or Tertiary marine sedimentary bedrock and evaporation index greater than 2.5
    2. National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas, test areas, and areas in Western United States susceptible to irrigation-induced selenium contamination
  1. Decision tree for prediction of likelihood of selenium contamination and classification of test areas and 26 National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas used to derive decision tree

34-36. Graph showing:

    1. Relation between total dissolved-solids concentration and probability that selenium concentration exceeds 5 micrograms per liter (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency chronic criterion for selenium)
    2. Three-dimensional principal-component score plot showing grouping of water samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas into three distinct clusters
    3. Relation between facies-1 water samples and water samples having selenium concentrations greater than or equal to 3 micrograms per liter, a guideline for protection of semi-aquatic wildlife
  1. Photographs showing typical selenium-induced terata of avian embryos
  2. Box plots comparing trace-element concentrations in stilt eggs containing normal and deformed embryos
  3. Graph showing exploratory factor-analysis loadings, showing association of trace elements in eggs and the presence of terata
  4. Box plots comparing mercury concentrations in stilt and avocet eggs from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas to concentrations in stilt eggs from the Tulare Lake Bed area in California
  5. Graph showing teratogenic-response functions for ducks, stilts, and avocets
  6. Graph showing teratogenic-response functions for stilts at Kesterson Reservoir during 1983-85 and in Tulare Lake Bed area during 1987-95
  7. Box plot showing statistical summary of projected magnitude of selenium-induced hen effects at sites with one or more eggs exceeding stilt standard (intermediate sensitivity) for embryotoxicity
  8. Graph showing magnitude of predicted hen effects at 79 National Irrigation Water Quality Program data-collection sites where selenium concentrations in eggs are sufficient to reduce hatchability
  9. Graph showing relation between effected eggs and effected hens for black-necked stilts during 1983-85 at Kesterson Reservoir and during 1988-89 in basin that includes Tulare Lake Bed area in California
  10. Graph showing relations among selenium concentrations in surface water and bottom sediment (<0.062-millimeter fraction), and invertebrate tissue
  11. Graph showing relation between selenium concentrations in surface water at nesting site and in sets of avian eggs, during April-July 1987-92
  12. Graph showing relation between study-area rankings for selenium in water and plants, water and aquatic invertebrates, water and fish, and water and reproductive effects on birds

TABLES

  1. Reconnaissance and detailed studies concerning National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  2. Minimum analytical reporting limits for trace elements in water, bottom sediment, and biota
  3. Minimum analytical reporting limits for pesticides in water, bottom sediment, and biota
  4. Water and bottom-sediment data-collection sites in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  5. Description of surface-water analyses in National Irrigation Water Quality Program data base
  6. Description of ground-water analyses in National Irrigation Water Quality Program data base
  7. Description of bottom-material analyses in National Irrigation Water Quality Program data base
  8. Description of biological-sample analyses in National Irrigation Water Quality Program data base
  9. Taxa collected for inorganic analysis in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  10. Contaminant standards, criteria, and guidelines used by data-synthesis team to evaluate National Irrigation Water Quality Program water and sediment data

11-14. Summary statistics for:

    1. Filtered inorganic constituents in water samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas 25
    2. Inorganic constituents in bottom-sediment samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas 26
    3. Selected pesticides in surface-water samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas 27
    4. Selected pesticides in bottom-sediment samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  1. Classification of National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas by selenium content of surface water in and downstream from irrigated areas
  2. Generalized bedrock geology of National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  3. Summary description of climate in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  4. Summary description of degree of selenium contamination and physical characteristics of National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  5. Selenium concentrations in biota that may adversely affect sensitive fish or aquatic birds
  6. Summary statistics for selenium in plants, invertebrates, fish, and bird livers and eggs from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  7. Classification of National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas by selenium content of avian eggs
  8. Taxonomic distribution of National Irrigation Water Quality Program avian-egg samples analyzed for selenium
  9. Amount of land in Western United States where bedrock consists of Upper Cretaceous or Tertiary marine sedimentary rocks and where evaporation index exceeds four threshold values
  10. Matrix of Spearman correlation coefficients (r) for variables considered in logistic-regression models
  11. Results of logistic-regression modeling of selenium in surface-water samples from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  12. Background levels and toxic thresholds for contaminants in avian eggs
  13. Toxic exposures of contaminants to avian eggs from National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  14. Correlation matrix for Tulare Lake Basin multielement-response sample
  15. Number of avian embryos analyzed for selenium content and assessed for teratogenesis
  16. Predicted rates of avian teratogenesis in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  17. Power analysis of avian data for detecting selenium-induced terata in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  18. Calculation of probability of hen effect, Belle Fourche Reclamation Project (C), South Dakota
  19. Summary of predicted avian embryotoxicity in National Irrigation Water Quality Program study areas
  20. Effected hens and effected eggs of black-necked stilts, Tulare Lake Bed area, California
  21. Study-area rankings, summary statistics for selenium concentrations in water, plants, aquatic invertebrates, and fish, and reproductive effects on birds

CONVERSION FACTORS, VERTICAL DATUM, AND WATER-QUALITY UNITS

Multiply By To obtain
acre 4,047 square meter
bar 100 kilopascal
cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second
foot (ft) 0.3048 meter
inch (in.) 25.40 millimeter
inch per year (in/yr) 25.40 millimeter per year
mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer
pint 0.4732 liter
pound per day (lb/d) 0.4536 kilogram per day
square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer
Abbreviated water-quality units used in this report:
mg/L, milligram per liter
µg/L, microgram per liter
ng/L, nanogram per liter
pg/L, picograms per liter 		Additional abbreviated units used in this report:
µg/g, microgram per gram
µm, micrometer
mm, millimeter
µg/kg, microgram per kilogram
mg/kg, milligram per kilogram
ECx, Concentration that has an effect on x percent of the organisms tested. The EC50, is the concentration that affects 50 percent of the organisms tested.

Unless otherwise noted, all trace-element concentrations in biological samples are in dry weight. Dry-weight and wet-weight concentrations in biological tissue can be converted from one to the other by using these equations:
Dry-weight concentration = (wet-weight concentration) / [1 - (percent moisture/100)]
Wet-weight concentration = (dry-weight concentration) x [1 - (percent moisture/100)]

Sea level: In this report, "sea level" refers to the National Geodetic vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD of 1929, formerly called Sea-Level Datum of 1929), which is derived from a general adjustment of the first-order leveling networks of the United States and Canada.

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