Brenda E. Ballachey J. Bickham B. Hocker S. Kennedy H. Thompson A.D. Vethaak David B. Peakall Lee R. Shugart John J. Stegeman 1993 <p><span>Biomarkers may be used to determine chemical exposure and effects in several important ways. These include (1) evaluation of new agricultural or industrial chemicals for effects, (2) screening of municipal or industrial effluents, (3) determining the geographic distribution of chemical effects in the environment and their changes over time, (4) determining the identity and source of chemical pollutants, and (5) establishing cause and effect linkages.</span></p> application/pdf 10.1007/978-3-642-84631-1_3 en Springer Implementation of biomarker-based studies chapter