Matthew T. Turnley Celine M.J. Rickels Evan P. Tanner M. Colter Chitwood Randy W. DeYoung W. Sue Fairbanks Derek P. Hahn Levi J. Heffelfinger Robert Charles Lonsinger H. George Wang Michael J. Cherry Marlin M. Dart 2025 <p><span>Evolutionary theory predicts that parental care is favored when the fitness benefits outweigh the costs of providing care (Klug et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2012</span><span>). In mammals, parental care is generally provided by females, who provide nourishment through lactation, protection from predators, aid in juvenile movement, or otherwise facilitate offspring survival (Balshine,&nbsp;</span><span>2012</span><span>; Lent,&nbsp;</span><span>1974</span><span>). However, in capital breeding species that rely on stored energy reserves for reproduction, increased investment can reduce the female's body condition and the number of offspring produced in subsequent years (Balme et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2017</span><span>; Cook et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2013</span><span>; Stephens et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2009</span><span>). Unlike income breeders, which produce offspring from concurrent energy uptake, capital breeders deplete energy stores during reproduction, and lactation hinders the recovery of these stores (Clutton-Brock et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>1983</span><span>; Cook et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2013</span><span>; Stephens et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2009</span><span>). Consequently, iteroparous mammals face a trade-off between investing in current offspring and investing in maintenance or future offspring (Hamel et al.,&nbsp;</span><span>2010</span><span>; Stearns,&nbsp;</span><span>1989</span><span>; Williams,&nbsp;</span><span>1966</span><span>).</span></p> application/pdf 10.1002/ecy.70111 en Ecological Society of America Predator-induced injury of a neonatal pronghorn cues abandonment of current reproductive investment article