Michael P. Dieter Lucille F. Stickel 1979 <p><span>Oil and gas development and exploration in marine coastal areas and the Great Lakes will result in unavoidable spills of polluting oil. Although large oil spills may kill thousands of birds and stimulate much public concern, the bulk of oil that reaches aquatic environmentS&nbsp;released in the course of normal operations, with a total input into the world's oceans estimated at 6 million metric tons per year. The effects of sublethal low-level oil pollution may be more deleterious to bird populations over the long term than the spectacular bird kills resulting from oil spills.</span></p><p><span></span><span>The physiological and ecological effects of oil on waterbirds were examined in a series of laboratory and field experiments, including studies of the effects of oiling&nbsp;on hatchability&nbsp;of eggs; the effects of an oil-contaminated&nbsp;diet on physiological&nbsp;condition, reproduction, and survival; and the accumulation of oil in body tissues. Chemical methodology was developed in support of these studies.</span></p> application/pdf en U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological and physiological/toxicological effects of petroleum on aquatic birds: A summary of research activities FY76 through FY78 reports