A substantial number of invasive grasses, forbs and woody plants have invaded temperate grasslands in North America. Among the invading species are winter annuals, biennials, cool-season perennials, warm-season perennials, vines, shrubs, and trees. Many of these species have been deliberately introduced and widely planted; some are still used for range improvement, pastures, lawns, and as ornamentals, though many are listed as state or federal noxious weeds. Others have been greatly facilitated by widespread land disturbance. Historically, fire has been a major selective force in the evolution of temperate grasslands. Further, prescribed fire is commonly used as a method of ecological management for native grassland communities as well as in conjunction with restoration efforts. Within this context, it is important to understand how invasive species will interact with natural and prescribed fire regimes. In this paper, we consider what is known about how exotic species that invade temperate grasslands relate to fire. The primary issues addressed for each species are (1) Does fire appear to enhance colonization? (2) To what degree does fire affect the survival of plants? (3) Are plants that are burned able to regrow following fire and, if so, how rapidly can they recover? (4) How important is competition with native species to the response to fire? and (5) What effect does an invasive species have on the characteristics of the fire regime? For many species, results are preliminary, incomplete, or inconsistent among studies. For this reason, many of the conclusions drawn for individual species must be considered preliminary. Based on analyses of individual species, a conceptual framework is presented for considering how invasive plants may interact with fire when they invade an ecosystem. The major categories of influences are the native community, the fire regime, growth conditions for both invasive and native species, and influences that disturbances, human impacts, and landscape characteristics have had in the past and will have in the future. The examples considered in this paper provide support for a few, tentative generalizations. First, among our current worst invaders of temperate grasslands, adaptation to fire is quite variable. Some species are not well adapted to burning and can be easily eliminated; other species are better adapted but can still be eliminated if fire occurs during periods of particular vulnerability and/or at high frequency. There is a set of species that is extremely well adapted to fire and will not be eliminated through burning alone. Second, competitive interactions with native species play a crucial role in the success of nonnative invaders. In cases where differential burn responses between invasive and native species can be exploited, and adequate populations of native dominant species are present, fire can sometimes tip the competitive balance away from invasives. Third, there are a few invasive species that have exceptional attributes and for which there are no easy solutions. The ability of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) to enhance fire, the ability of Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera) to suppress fire, and the ability of leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) to resprout from repeated injury make these species exceptional threats to native diversity. Finally, the available information for many invasive species is very incomplete, partic- ularly with regard to how fire affects competitive interactions with the native community. There is much more we need to know if we are to consistently predict how invasive species will respond to fire and how burning can best be used to manage for natural diversity.
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Fire Conference 2000, San Diego, CA, November 27-December 1, 2000, p. 40-65.","productDescription":"26 p.","startPage":"40","endPage":"65","costCenters":[{"id":455,"text":"National Wetlands Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":17705,"text":"Wetland and Aquatic Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":371497,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Canada, Mexico, United States","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -116.19140625,\n 54.1109429427243\n ],\n [\n -114.9609375,\n 47.21956811231547\n ],\n [\n -115.400390625,\n 45.460130637921004\n ],\n [\n -107.9296875,\n 42.74701217318067\n ],\n [\n -104.58984375,\n 37.43997405227057\n ],\n [\n -103.0078125,\n 26.980828590472107\n ],\n [\n -98.701171875,\n 22.187404991398775\n ],\n [\n -97.470703125,\n 24.367113562651262\n ],\n [\n -97.03125,\n 27.527758206861886\n ],\n [\n -94.833984375,\n 29.22889003019423\n ],\n [\n -90.3515625,\n 29.305561325527698\n ],\n [\n -86.66015624999999,\n 30.06909396443887\n ],\n [\n -85.78125,\n 30.90222470517144\n ],\n [\n -88.24218749999999,\n 31.42866311735861\n ],\n [\n -97.822265625,\n 30.06909396443887\n ],\n [\n -95.185546875,\n 35.38904996691167\n ],\n [\n -92.724609375,\n 39.30029918615029\n ],\n [\n -90.87890625,\n 41.376808565702355\n ],\n [\n -88.330078125,\n 38.75408327579141\n ],\n [\n -87.451171875,\n 38.89103282648846\n ],\n [\n -86.30859375,\n 40.78054143186033\n ],\n [\n -87.802734375,\n 42.74701217318067\n ],\n [\n -90,\n 44.96479793033101\n ],\n [\n -91.669921875,\n 45.644768217751924\n ],\n [\n -95.44921875,\n 47.040182144806664\n ],\n [\n -96.591796875,\n 50.62507306341435\n ],\n [\n -103.18359375,\n 52.26815737376817\n ],\n [\n -116.19140625,\n 54.1109429427243\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Grace, James B. 0000-0001-6374-4726 gracej@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6374-4726","contributorId":884,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Grace","given":"James","email":"gracej@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[{"id":455,"text":"National Wetlands Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":531,"text":"Patuxent Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":17705,"text":"Wetland and Aquatic Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":780120,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Smith, Melinda D.","contributorId":187585,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Smith","given":"Melinda","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":780121,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Grace, S.L.","contributorId":103441,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Grace","given":"S.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":780122,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Collins, Scott L.","contributorId":71307,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Collins","given":"Scott L.","affiliations":[{"id":7000,"text":"Department of Biology, University of New Mexico","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":780123,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Stohlgren, Thomas J. 0000-0001-9696-4450 stohlgrent@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9696-4450","contributorId":2902,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Stohlgren","given":"Thomas","email":"stohlgrent@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":291,"text":"Fort Collins Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":780124,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":70023049,"text":"70023049 - 2001 - Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment: Investigation description and surface science results","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-12-01T17:57:49.126068","indexId":"70023049","displayToPublicDate":"2001-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2001","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2317,"text":"Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment: Investigation description and surface science results","docAbstract":"The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) investigation on Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) is aimed at determining (1) the composition of surface minerals, rocks, and ices; (2) the temperature and dynamics of the atmosphere; (3) the properties of the atmospheric aerosols and clouds; (4) the nature of the polar regions; and (5) the thermophysical properties of the surface materials. These objectives are met using an infrared (5.8- to 50-μm) interferometric spectrometer, along with broadband thermal (5.1- to 150-μm) and visible/near-IR (0.3- to 2.9-μm) radiometers. The MGS TES instrument weighs 14.47 kg, consumes 10.6 W when operating, and is 23.6×35.5×40.0 cm in size. The TES data are calibrated to a 1-σ precision of 2.5−6×10−8 W cm−2 sr−1/cm−1, 1.6×10−6 W cm−2 sr−1, and ∼0.5 K in the spectrometer, visible/near-IR bolometer, and IR bolometer, respectively. These instrument subsections are calibrated to an absolute accuracy of ∼4×10−8 W cm−2 sr−1/cm−1 (0.5 K at 280 K), 1–2%, and ∼1–2 K, respectively. Global mapping of surface mineralogy at a spatial resolution of 3 km has shown the following: (1) The mineralogic composition of dark regions varies from basaltic, primarily plagioclase feldspar and clinopyroxene, in the ancient, southern highlands to andesitic, dominated by plagioclase feldspar and volcanic glass, in the younger northern plains. (2) Aqueous mineralization has produced gray, crystalline hematite in limited regions under ambient or hydrothermal conditions; these deposits are interpreted to be in-place sedimentary rock formations and indicate that liquid water was stable near the surface for a long period of time. (3) There is no evidence for large-scale (tens of kilometers) occurrences of moderate-grained (>50-μm) carbonates exposed at the surface at a detection limit of ∼10%. (4) Unweathered volcanic minerals dominate the spectral properties of dark regions, and weathering products, such as clays, have not been observed anywhere above a detection limit of ∼10%; this lack of evidence for chemical weathering indicates a geologic history dominated by a cold, dry climate in which mechanical, rather than chemical, weathering was the significant form of erosion and sediment production. (5) There is no conclusive evidence for sulfate minerals at a detection limit of ∼15%. The polar region has been studied with the following major conclusions: (1) Condensed CO2 has three distinct end-members, from fine-grained crystals to slab ice. (2) The growth and retreat of the polar caps observed by MGS is virtually the same as observed by Viking 12 Martian years ago. (3) Unique regions have been identified that appear to differ primarily in the grain size of CO2; one south polar region appears to remain as black slab CO2 ice throughout its sublimation. (4) Regional atmospheric dust is common in localized and regional dust storms around the margin and interior of the southern cap. Analysis of the thermophysical properties of the surface shows that (1) the spatial pattern of albedo has changed since Viking observations, (2) a unique cluster of surface materials with intermediate inertia and albedo occurs that is distinct from the previously identified low-inertia/bright and high-inertia/dark surfaces, and (3) localized patches of high-inertia material have been found in topographic lows and may have been formed by a unique set of aeolian, fluvial, or erosional processes or may be exposed bedrock.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","doi":"10.1029/2000JE001370","issn":"01480227","usgsCitation":"Christensen, P.R., Bandfield, J., Hamilton, V., Ruff, S.W., Kieffer, H.H., Titus, T., Malin, M.C., Morris, R., Lane, M.D., Clark, R., Jakosky, B., Mellon, M.T., Pearl, J., Conrath, B., Smith, M.D., Clancy, R., Kuzmin, R., Roush, T., Mehall, G., Gorelick, N., Bender, K., Murray, K., Dason, S., Greene, E., Silverman, S., and Greenfield, M., 2001, Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment: Investigation description and surface science results: Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets, v. 106, no. 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","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Army Corps of Engineers","usgsCitation":"Evans, S., Smith, C.D., Adams, N., and Rondorf, D., 2001, Passage behavior of radio-tagged yearling Chinook salmon at Bonneville Dam, 2001, 31 p. .","productDescription":"31 p. ","costCenters":[{"id":654,"text":"Western Fisheries Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":333745,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58872487e4b08aa8f945abce","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Evans, S.D.","contributorId":69282,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Evans","given":"S.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":660039,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Smith, C. D.","contributorId":29785,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":660040,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Adams, N.S.","contributorId":178351,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Adams","given":"N.S.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":660041,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Rondorf, D.W.","contributorId":80789,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rondorf","given":"D.W.","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":654,"text":"Western Fisheries Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":660042,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70022750,"text":"70022750 - 2001 - Detection of buried targets using a new enhanced very early time electromagnetic (VETEM) prototype system","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-12T17:20:37","indexId":"70022750","displayToPublicDate":"2001-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2001","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1944,"text":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Detection of buried targets using a new enhanced very early time electromagnetic (VETEM) prototype system","docAbstract":"In this paper, numerical simulations of a new enhanced very early time electromagnetic (VETEM) prototype system are presented, where a horizontal transmitting loop and two horizontal receiving loops are used to detect buried targets, in which three loops share the same axis and the transmitter is located at the center of receivers. In the new VETEM system, the difference of signals from two receivers is taken to eliminate strong direct-signals from the transmitter and background clutter and furthermore to obtain a better SNR for buried targets. Because strong coupling exists between the transmitter and receivers, accurate analysis of the three-loop antenna system is required, for which a loop-tree basis function method has been utilized to overcome the low-frequency breakdown problem. In the analysis of scattering problem from buried targets, a conjugate gradient (CG) method with fast Fourier transform (FFT) is applied to solve the electric field integral equation. However, the convergence of such CG-FFT algorithm is extremely slow at very low frequencies. In order to increase the convergence rate, a frequency-hopping approach has been used. Finally, the primary, coupling, reflected, and scattered magnetic fields are evaluated at receiving loops to calculate the output electric current. Numerous simulation results are given to interpret the new VETEM system. Comparing with other single-transmitter-receiver systems, the new VETEM has better SNR and ability to reduce the clutter.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","doi":"10.1109/36.975004","issn":"01962892","usgsCitation":"Cui, T., Chew, W., Aydiner, A., Wright, D., and Smith, D., 2001, Detection of buried targets using a new enhanced very early time electromagnetic (VETEM) prototype system: IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, v. 39, no. 12, p. 2702-2712, https://doi.org/10.1109/36.975004.","startPage":"2702","endPage":"2712","numberOfPages":"11","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":233856,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":208244,"rank":9999,"type":{"id":10,"text":"Digital Object Identifier"},"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/36.975004"}],"volume":"39","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059ff71e4b0c8380cd4f1b8","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Cui, T.J.","contributorId":72552,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cui","given":"T.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":394773,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Chew, W.C.","contributorId":19730,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Chew","given":"W.C.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":394771,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Aydiner, A.A.","contributorId":76088,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Aydiner","given":"A.A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":394774,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Wright, D.L.","contributorId":88758,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wright","given":"D.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":394775,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Smith, D.V.","contributorId":31143,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"D.V.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":394772,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":1014983,"text":"1014983 - 2001 - Survey protocol for assessment of endangered freshwater mussels the Allegheny River, Pennsylvania","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-12-02T19:26:40.736572","indexId":"1014983","displayToPublicDate":"2001-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2001","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2402,"text":"Journal of North American Benthological Society","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Survey protocol for assessment of endangered freshwater mussels the Allegheny River, Pennsylvania","docAbstract":"The United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) requires a biological assessment of any activity that is authorized, funded, or carried out by a federal agency and likely to affect a federally listed endangered species or its critical habitat. We developed a standardized survey protocol for biological assessments of the effects of bridge replacements on 2 federally listed endangered freshwater mussels, Epioblasma torulosa rangiana and Pleurobema clava, found in the Allegheny River, Pennsylvania. The protocol combines qualitative sampling to determine species present with quantitative sampling to estimate density. Data on species present satisfy the minimum requirement of a biological assessment, whereas estimates of density are needed to assess the number of individuals that would die as a result of bridge replacement. Some excavation of substrate is necessary for unbiased population estimates because of species and sex-specific differences in detection at the substrate surface. We reduced the amount of excavation and cost of the survey by using a statistical sampling technique called double sampling, which uses counts from excavating a subset of quadrats to calibrate counts from searching the substrate surface of all quadrats. We applied the survey protocol to the Allegheny River at West Hickory where E. t. rangiana was the 3rd and P. clava was the 4th most abundant mussel at the site. Only 31% of P. clava and 52% of E. t. rangiana (80% of females, 45% of males) were detected at the substrate surface. We estimated that 9173 (95% CI: 6309–13,336) E. t. rangiana and 7010 (95% CI: 4462–11,013) P. clava lived within 50 m of the existing bridge and would be affected immediately by bridge construction. (Population estimates did not include mussels too small to be retained on a 6.35-mm-mesh sieve.) Application of the protocol is not limited to biological assessment under the ESA, but is appropriate where site-specific status of freshwater mussel populations is required.
","language":"English","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","doi":"10.2307/1468193","usgsCitation":"Smith, D., Villella, R., and Lemarie, D.P., 2001, Survey protocol for assessment of endangered freshwater mussels the Allegheny River, Pennsylvania: Journal of North American Benthological Society, v. 20, no. 1, p. 118-132, https://doi.org/10.2307/1468193.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"118","endPage":"132","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":130472,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Pennsylvania","county":"Forest County","city":"Harmony Township, Hickory Township","otherGeospatial":"Allegheny River","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -79.41431544044042,\n 41.56318885766913\n ],\n [\n -79.40135625118123,\n 41.56023492519307\n ],\n [\n -79.39564905856062,\n 41.56434470753317\n ],\n [\n -79.39384678720627,\n 41.569096317528334\n ],\n [\n -79.39685057279664,\n 41.5796898653023\n ],\n [\n -79.4098955845015,\n 41.57869478778517\n ],\n [\n -79.41367177210023,\n 41.57294871774209\n ],\n [\n -79.41431544044042,\n 41.56318885766913\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"20","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ae1e4b07f02db688796","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Smith, D. 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P.","contributorId":23100,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemarie","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":321740,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70023357,"text":"70023357 - 2001 - Environmental geochemistry at the global scale","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-12T17:20:00","indexId":"70023357","displayToPublicDate":"2001-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2001","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"title":"Environmental geochemistry at the global scale","docAbstract":"Land degradation and pollution caused by population pressure and economic development pose a threat to the sustainability of the earth's surface, especially in tropical regions where a long history of chemical weathering has made the surface environment particularly fragile. Systematic baseline geochemical data provide a means of monitoring the state of the environment and identifying problem areas. Regional surveys have already been carried out in some countries, and with increased national and international funding they can be extended to cover the rest of the land surface of the globe. Preparations have been made, under the auspices of the International Union of Geological Surveys (IUGS) and the International Association of Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry (IAGC) for the establishment of just such an integrated global database. ?? 2001 NERC. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.","largerWorkTitle":"Applied Geochemistry","language":"English","doi":"10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00036-1","issn":"08832927","usgsCitation":"Plant, J., Smith, D., Smith, B., and Williams, L., 2001, Environmental geochemistry at the global scale, in Applied Geochemistry, v. 16, no. 11-12, p. 1291-1308, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00036-1.","startPage":"1291","endPage":"1308","numberOfPages":"18","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":478966,"rank":10000,"type":{"id":41,"text":"Open Access External Repository Page"},"url":"http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/19087/1/GeoscienceAbst.pdf","text":"External Repository"},{"id":207296,"rank":9999,"type":{"id":10,"text":"Digital Object Identifier"},"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00036-1"},{"id":232126,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"16","issue":"11-12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a09c5e4b0c8380cd52065","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Plant, J.","contributorId":7445,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Plant","given":"J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":397378,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Smith, D.","contributorId":60978,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":397381,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Smith, B.","contributorId":53740,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":397380,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Williams, L.","contributorId":9421,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Williams","given":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":397379,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70023281,"text":"70023281 - 2001 - Leaf conductance decreased under free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) for three perennials in the Nevada desert","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-09-30T10:45:21","indexId":"70023281","displayToPublicDate":"2001-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2001","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2863,"text":"New Phytologist","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Leaf conductance decreased under free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) for three perennials in the Nevada desert","docAbstract":"Three airborne geophysical surveys have been made in the Boulder watershed and adjacent areas (fig. 1). The objectives of the geophysical studies in the watershed is to map subsurface lithologic, structural and hydrologic features important in controlling possible ground water contamination from mining activities and to design remediation efforts. These studies are part of an abandoned mine land study of the Boulder Basin mining district and watershed.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/ofr00240","usgsCitation":"Smith, B.D., Labson, V.F., and Hill, P.L., 2000, Airborne geophysical surveys in the Boulder Watershed, Jefferson and Lewis and Clark Counties, Montana; U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-240, 4 p.","productDescription":"Report: 5 p.; Data","onlineOnly":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":35995,"text":"Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":356825,"rank":4,"type":{"id":19,"text":"Raw Data"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/0240/TUNNELS_HEM.zip","text":"TUNNELS HEM DATA","size":"34.4 MB","linkFileType":{"id":6,"text":"zip"},"description":"OFR 00-240 TUNNELS HEM DATA"},{"id":155074,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/0240/coverthb.jpg"},{"id":356824,"rank":3,"type":{"id":19,"text":"Raw Data"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/0240/BOULDER_HEM.zip","text":"BOULDER HEM DATA","size":"89.6 MB","linkFileType":{"id":6,"text":"zip"},"description":"OFR 00-240 BOULDER HEM DATA"},{"id":356822,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/0240/ofr00240.pdf","text":"Report","size":"99.0 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"OFR 00-240"}],"country":"United States","state":"Montana","county":"Clark County, Jefferson County, Lewis County","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -112.4395751953125,\n 46.151297121751725\n ],\n [\n -111.7529296875,\n 46.151297121751725\n ],\n [\n -111.7529296875,\n 46.36398839132818\n ],\n [\n -112.4395751953125,\n 46.36398839132818\n ],\n [\n -112.4395751953125,\n 46.151297121751725\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","contact":"Director, Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25046, MS 973
Denver, CO 80225
The Buckeye mine site is located in the Boulder River watershed along Basin Creek, in northern Jefferson County, Montana. This project is part of the Boulder River watershed Abandoned Mine Lands Initiative, and is a collaborative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey and Bureau of Land Management in the U.S. Department of the Interior, and the U.S. Forest Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The site includes a large flotation milltailing deposit, which extends to the stream and meadows below the mine. These tailings contain elevated levels of metals, such as silver, cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc. Metal-rich fluvial tailings containing these metals, are possible sources of ground and surface water contamination. Geophysical methods were used to characterize the sediments at the Buckeye mine site. Ground geophysical surveys, including electromagnetics, DC resistivity, and total field magnetic methods, were used to delineate anomalies that probably correlate with subsurface metal contamination. Subsurface conductivity was mapped using EM-31 and EM-34 terrain conductivity measuring systems. The conductivity maps represent variation of concentration of dissolved solids in the subsurface from a few meters, to an approximate depth of 30 meters. Conductive sulfides several centimeters thick were encountered in a shallow trench, dug in an area of very high conductivity, at a depth of approximately 1 to1.5 meters. Laboratory measurements of samples of the sulfide layers show the conductivity is on the order of 1000 millisiemens. DC resistivity soundings were used to quantify subsurface conductivity variations and to estimate the depth to bedrock. Total field magnetic measurements were used to identify magnetic metals in the subsurface. The EM surveys identified several areas of relatively high conductivity and detected a conductive plume extending to the southwest, toward the stream. This plume correlates well with the potentiometric surface and direction of ground water flow, and with water quality data from monitoring wells in and around the tailings. The electrical geophysical data suggests there has been vertical migration of high dissolved solids. A DC sounding made on a nearby granite outcrop to the north of the mine showed that the shallow conductivity is on the order of 5 millisiemens/m. Granite underlying the mine tailings, with similar electrical properties as the outcropping area, may be more than 30 meters deep.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr00371","issn":"0094-9140","usgsCitation":"McDougal, R., and Smith, B.D., 2000, Ground geophysical study of the Buckeye mine tailings, Boulder watershed, Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2000-371, 55 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr00371.","productDescription":"55 p.","costCenters":[{"id":102,"text":"Abandoned Mine Lands Initiative","active":false,"usgs":true},{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":156569,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":341961,"rank":3,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/ofr-00-0371/ofr-00-0371.pdf","text":"Report","size":"11 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":1574,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/ofr-00-0371/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Montana","county":"Jefferson County","otherGeospatial":" Basin Creek, Boulder River watershed, Buckeye mine","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -112.4066162109375,\n 46.375\n ],\n [\n -112.25,\n 46.375\n ],\n [\n -112.25,\n 46.5720787149159\n ],\n [\n -112.4066162109375,\n 46.5720787149159\n ],\n [\n -112.4066162109375,\n 46.375\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ab0e4b07f02db66dcdf","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"McDougal, Robert R.","contributorId":53418,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McDougal","given":"Robert R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":190839,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Smith, Bruce D. 0000-0002-1643-2997 bsmith@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1643-2997","contributorId":845,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"Bruce","email":"bsmith@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":190838,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":24551,"text":"ofr00110 - 2000 - Schlumberger DC resistivity soundings in the Boulder Watershed, Jefferson and Lewis and Clark counties, Montana","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-02-24T06:28:47","indexId":"ofr00110","displayToPublicDate":"2001-04-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2000","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2000-110","title":"Schlumberger DC resistivity soundings in the Boulder Watershed, Jefferson and Lewis and Clark counties, Montana","docAbstract":"During July, 1997, twenty four Schlumberger dc resistivity soundings were made in the Boulder watershed and adjacent areas (fig. 1). The objective of geophysical studies in the watershed is to map subsurface lithologic, structural and hydrologic features important in controlling possible ground water contamination from mining activities and for design of remediation efforts. These studies are part of an abandoned mine land study (http://amli.usgs.gov/amli/ ) of the Boulder Basin mining district ( http://www.deq.state.mt.us/mtmines2/linkdocs/techdocs/73tech.html ).
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1998","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:44","indexId":"ofr003","displayToPublicDate":"2000-08-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2000","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2000-3","title":"Geochemical characterization of surface water and streambed sediment of the Blackfoot River, Montana, during low flow conditions, August 16-20, 1998","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey,","doi":"10.3133/ofr003","issn":"0566-8174","usgsCitation":"Nagorski, S.A., McKinnon, T.E., Moore, J., and Smith, D.B., 2000, Geochemical characterization of surface water and streambed sediment of the Blackfoot River, Montana, during low flow conditions, August 16-20, 1998: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2000-3, 59 p., :ill. 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(some col.), col. map ;28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":153152,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/0003/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":19387,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/0003/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b24e4b07f02db6ae55e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nagorski, Sonia A.","contributorId":32940,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nagorski","given":"Sonia","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":185727,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"McKinnon, Temple E.","contributorId":40238,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"McKinnon","given":"Temple","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":185728,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Moore, J.N.","contributorId":22795,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"J.N.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":185726,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Smith, D. B. davidsmith@usgs.gov","contributorId":12840,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"D.","email":"davidsmith@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":185725,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":21973,"text":"ofr99433 - 2000 - National Geochemical Database, U.S. Geological Survey RASS (Rock Analysis Storage System) geochemical data for Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-09-27T11:30:14.587192","indexId":"ofr99433","displayToPublicDate":"2000-01-10T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2000","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"99-433","title":"National Geochemical Database, U.S. Geological Survey RASS (Rock Analysis Storage System) geochemical data for Alaska","docAbstract":"This dataset contains geochemical data for Alaska produced by the analytical laboratories of the Geologic Division of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). These data represent analyses of stream-sediment, heavy-mineral-concentrate (derived from stream sediment), soil, and organic material samples. Most of the data comes from mineral resource investigations conducted in the Alaska Mineral Resource Assessment Program (AMRAP). However, some of the data were produced in support of other USGS programs. The data were originally entered into the in-house Rock Analysis Storage System (RASS) database. The RASS database, which contains over 580,000 data records, was used by the Geologic Division from the early 1970's through the late 1980's to archive geochemical data. Much of the data have been previously published in paper copy USGS Open-File Reports by the submitter or the analyst but some of the data have never been published. \r\nOver the years, USGS scientists recognized several problems with the database. The two primary issues were location coordinates (either incorrect or lacking) and sample media (not precisely identified). This dataset represents a re-processing of the original RASS data to make the data accessible in digital format and more user friendly. This re-processing consisted of checking the information on sample media and location against the original sample submittal forms, the original analytical reports, and published reports. As necessary, fields were added to the original data to more fully describe the sample preparation methods used and sample medium analyzed. The actual analytical data were not checked in great detail, but obvious errors were corrected.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr99433","issn":"0094-9140","usgsCitation":"Bailey, E., Smith, D.B., Abston, C., Granitto, M., and Burleigh, K.A., 2000, National Geochemical Database, U.S. Geological Survey RASS (Rock Analysis Storage System) geochemical data for Alaska (Version 1.0.): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 99-433, HTML Document, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr99433.","productDescription":"HTML Document","costCenters":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":152893,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":10494,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index 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The TES data used in this paper are among the 6x107 spectra collected during the early mapping phase of the MGS mission from southern hemisphere winter to early summer (aerocentric longitude, Ls, 107° to 297°. The methodology for separating the surface and atmospheric components of the radiance from Mars, which allows detailed analysis and interpretation of surface mineralogy (9, 10), is described in previous papers (10, 11).","largerWorkTitle":"Second International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration","conferenceTitle":"Second International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration","conferenceDate":"2000-08-21T00:00:00","conferenceLocation":"Reykjavík, Iceland","language":"English","publisher":"Lunar and Planetary Institute","publisherLocation":"Houston, TX","usgsCitation":"Christensen, P.R., Kieffer, H.H., Pearl, J., Conrath, B., Malin, M.C., Clark, R., Morris, R., Banfield, J., Lane, M.D., Smith, M.D., Hamilton, V., and Kuzmin, R., 2000, TES observations of the martian surface and atmosphere, p. 22-23.","productDescription":"p. 22-23","numberOfPages":"2","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":282698,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53cd763ae4b0b2908510ac45","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Christensen, P. 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A landscape analysis of DEWA using\nGeographic Information Systems (GIs) was used to select\n14 hemlock and hardwood site-pairs that were similar in\ntopography (i.e., slope, terrain shape, aspect, light levels)\nand stream size (first or second order) but differed in forest\ncomposition. This paired watershed approach provided a\npowerful means to discern the influence of hemlock forests\non stream communities. This study was designed to provide\nan aquatic perspective on potential losses of biological\ndiversity should hemlock forests die.","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Proceedings: Symposium on sustainable management of hemlock ecosystems in Eastern North America","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Forest Service","publisherLocation":"Washington D.C.","usgsCitation":"Lemarie, D.P., Young, J.A., Snyder, C.D., Ross, R.M., Smith, D., and Bennett, R., 2000, Relationship of Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) to the ecology of small streams in Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area: General Technical Report NE-267, 1 p.","productDescription":"1 p.","startPage":"182","endPage":"182","numberOfPages":"1","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":287940,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":287939,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/14747"}],"country":"United States","state":"New Jersey;Pennsylvania","otherGeospatial":"Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -75.168339,40.940896 ], [ -75.168339,41.342998 ], [ -74.745521,41.342998 ], [ -74.745521,40.940896 ], [ -75.168339,40.940896 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53ae7809e4b0abf75cf2c870","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lemarie, David P.","contributorId":30914,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemarie","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":355212,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Young, John A. 0000-0002-4500-3673 jyoung@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4500-3673","contributorId":3777,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Young","given":"John","email":"jyoung@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":355210,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Snyder, Craig D. 0000-0002-3448-597X csnyder@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3448-597X","contributorId":2568,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Snyder","given":"Craig","email":"csnyder@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":355209,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Ross, Robert M.","contributorId":62562,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ross","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":355213,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Smith, David 0000-0001-6074-9257","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6074-9257","contributorId":1989,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Smith","given":"David","affiliations":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":355208,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Bennett, Randy M.","contributorId":7157,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bennett","given":"Randy M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":355211,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6}]}} ,{"id":70022687,"text":"70022687 - 2000 - Identification of a basaltic component on the Martian surface from Thermal Emission Spectrometer data","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-05T17:57:44.219404","indexId":"70022687","displayToPublicDate":"2000-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2000","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5718,"text":"Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets","onlineIssn":"2169-9100","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Identification of a basaltic component on the Martian surface from Thermal Emission Spectrometer data","docAbstract":"The Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) instrument collected 4.8×106 spectra of Mars during the initial aerobraking and science‐phasing periods of the mission (September 14, 1997, through April 29, 1998). Two previously developed atmosphere‐removal models were applied to data from Cimmeria Terra (25°S, 213°W). The surface spectra derived for these two models agree well, indicating that the surface and atmosphere emission can be separated and that the exact atmosphere‐removal model used has little effect on the derived surface composition. The Cimmeria spectra do not match terrestrial high‐silica igneous rocks (granite and rhyolite), ultramafic igneous rocks, limestone, or quartz‐ and clay‐rich sandstone and siltstone. A particulate (sand‐sized) sample of terrestrial flood basalt does provide an excellent match in both spectral shape and band depth to the Cimmeria spectrum over the entire TES spectral range. No unusual particle size effects are required to account for the observed spectral shape and depth. The implied grain size is consistent with the thermal inertia and albedo of this region, which indicate a sand‐sized surface with little dust. The identification of basalt is consistent with previous indications of pyroxene and basalt‐like compositions from visible/near‐infrared and thermal‐infrared spectral measurements. A linear spectral deconvolution model was applied to both surface‐only Cimmeria spectra using a library of 60 minerals to determine the composition and abundance of the component minerals. Plagioclase feldspar (45%; 53%) and clinopyroxene (26%; 19%) were positively identified above an estimated detection threshold of 10–15% for these minerals. The TES observations provide the first identification of feldspars on Mars. The best fit to the Mars data includes only clinopyroxene compositions; no orthopyroxene compositions are required to match the Cimmeria spectra. Olivine (12%; 12%) and sheet silicate (15%; 11%) were identified with lower confidence. Carbonates, quartz, and sulfates were not identified in Cimmeria at detection limits of ∼5, 5, and 10%, respectively. Their presence elsewhere, however, remains open. The Cimmeria spectra are not well matched by any one SNC meteorite spectrum, indicating that this region is not characterized by a single SNC lithology. The occurrence of unweathered feldspar and pyroxene in Cimmeria, together with the inferred presence of pyroxene and unweathered basalts in other dark regions and at the Viking and Pathfinder landing sites, provides evidence that extensive global chemical weathering of materials currently exposed on the Martian surface has not occurred.
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In the first model, the transmitting and receiving loop antennas accurately analyzed using the method of moments (MoM), and then conjugate gradient (CG) methods with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) are utilized to investigate the scattering from buried conducting plates. In the second model, two magnetic dipoles are used to replace the transmitter and receiver. 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Crystalline hematite is uniquely identified by the presence of fundamental vibrational absorption features centered near 300, 450, and >525 cm−1 and by the absence of silicate fundamentals in the 1000 cm−1 region. Spectral features resulting from atmospheric CO2, dust, and water ice were removed using a radiative transfer model. The spectral properties unique to Sinus Meridiani were emphasized by removing the average spectrum of the surrounding region. The depth and shape of the hematite fundamental bands show that the hematite is crystalline and relatively coarse grained (>5–10 μm). Diameters up to and greater than hundreds of micrometers are permitted within the instrumental noise and natural variability of hematite spectra. Hematite particles <5–10 μm in diameter (as either unpacked or hard-packed powders) fail to match the TES spectra. The spectrally derived areal abundance of hematite varies with particle size from ∼10% (>30 μm diameter) to 40–60% (10 μm diameter). The hematite in Sinus Meridiani is thus distinct from the fine-grained (diameter <5–10 μm), red, crystalline hematite considered, on the basis of visible, near-IR data, to be a minor spectral component in Martian bright regions like Olympus-Amazonis. Sinus Meridiani hematite is closely associated with a smooth, layered, friable surface that is interpreted to be sedimentary in origin. This material may be the uppermost surface in the region, indicating that it might be a late stage sedimentary unit or a layered portion of the heavily cratered plains units. We consider five possible mechanisms for the formation of coarse-grained, crystalline hematite. These processes fall into two classes depending on whether they require a significant amount of near-surface water: the first is chemical precipitation that includes origin by (1) precipitation from standing, oxygenated, Fe-rich water (oxide iron formations), (2) precipitation from Fe-rich hydrothermal fluids, (3) low-temperature dissolution and precipitation through mobile ground water leaching, and (4) formation of surface coatings, and the second is thermal oxidation of magnetite-rich lavas. Weathering and alteration processes, which produce nanophase and red hematite, are not consistent with the coarse, crystalline hematite observed in Sinus Meridiani. We prefer chemical precipitation models and favor precipitation from Fe-rich water on the basis of the probable association with sedimentary materials, large geographic size, distance from a regional heat source, and lack of evidence for extensive groundwater processes elsewhere on Mars. The TES results thus provide mineralogic evidence for probable large-scale water interactions. The Sinus Meridiani region may be an ideal candidate for future landed missions searching for biotic and prebiotic environments, and the physical characteristics of this site satisfy all of the engineering requirements for the missions currently planned.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","doi":"10.1029/1999JE001093","issn":"01480227","usgsCitation":"Christensen, P.R., Bandfield, J., Clark, R.N., Edgett, K., Hamilton, V., Hoefen, T., Kieffer, H.H., Kuzmin, R., Lane, M.D., Malin, M.C., Morris, R., Pearl, J., Pearson, R., Roush, T.L., Ruff, S.W., and Smith, M.D., 2000, Detection of crystalline hematite mineralization on Mars by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer: evidence for near-surface water: Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets, v. 105, no. 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From the scarcity of superposed craters on their surface, these layered deposits are thought to be comparatively young—preserving a record of the seasonal and climatic cycling of atmospheric CO2, H2O, and dust over the past ∼105–108 years. For this reason, the martian polar deposits may serve as a Rosetta Stone for understanding the geologic and climatic history of the planet—documenting variations in insolation (due to quasiperiodic oscillations in the planet's obliquity and orbital elements), volatile mass balance, atmospheric composition, dust storm activity, volcanic eruptions, large impacts, catastrophic floods, solar luminosity, supernovae, and perhaps even a record of microbial life. Beyond their scientific value, the polar regions may soon prove important for another reason—providing a valuable and accessible reservoir of water to support the long-term human exploration of Mars. In this paper we assess the current state of Mars polar research, identify the key questions that motivate the exploration of the polar regions, discuss the extent to which current missions will address these questions, and speculate about what additional capabilities and investigations may be required to address the issues that remain outstanding.
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