High resolution intrinsic and lithium-drifted germanium gamma-ray detectors operate at about 77–90 K. A cryostat for borehole and marine applications has been designed that makes use of prefrozen propane canisters. Uses of such canisters simplifies cryostat construction, and the rapid exchange of canisters greatly reduces the time required to restore the detector to full holding-time capability and enhances the safety of a field operation where high-intensity 252Cf or other isotopic sources are used. A holding time of 6 h at 86 K was achieved in the laboratory in a simulated borehole probe in which a canister 3.7 cm diameter by 57 cm long was used. Longer holding times can be achieved by larger volume canisters in marine probes.
Chemical analyses, X-ray diffraction data, and cation exchange determinations are given for a lithium-bearing smectite. The X-ray data and Greene-Kelly's lithium test indicate the presence of both dioctahedral and trioctahedral phases. The exchange determinations indicate that the lithium is in the structure of the clay, and the chemical data are intermediate between those for hectorite and montmorillonite. All data indicate that the clay is a mixture of hectorite and montmorillonite.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","usgsCitation":"Starkey, H., and Mountjoy, W., 1973, Identification of a lithium-bearing smectite from Spor Mountain, Utah: Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey, v. 1, no. 4, p. 415-419.","productDescription":"5 p.","startPage":"415","endPage":"419","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":313759,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":313758,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/journal/1973/vol1issue4/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"20.4 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States of America","state":"Utah","otherGeospatial":"Spor Mountain","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -113.2147979736328,\n 39.77582494105872\n ],\n [\n -113.22784423828125,\n 39.75761606081634\n ],\n [\n -113.2412338256836,\n 39.74679401056388\n ],\n [\n -113.2027816772461,\n 39.73676229957947\n ],\n [\n -113.22269439697264,\n 39.73227395608596\n ],\n [\n -113.2254409790039,\n 39.714317659615716\n ],\n [\n -113.19282531738281,\n 39.69107315898447\n ],\n [\n -113.16707611083983,\n 39.69556418405592\n ],\n [\n -113.16844940185547,\n 39.70877138781409\n ],\n [\n -113.1643295288086,\n 39.72778532033429\n ],\n [\n -113.15814971923828,\n 39.752073271862386\n ],\n [\n -113.18252563476561,\n 39.76817252009203\n ],\n [\n -113.2147979736328,\n 39.77582494105872\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"1","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"568cf744e4b0e7a44bc0f169","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Starkey, Harry C.","contributorId":102074,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Starkey","given":"Harry C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":587250,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Mountjoy, Wayne","contributorId":21973,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mountjoy","given":"Wayne","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":587251,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":12446,"text":"ofr726 - 1972 - Lithium in surface and ground waters of the conterminous United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:06:33","indexId":"ofr726","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-6","title":"Lithium in surface and ground waters of the conterminous United States","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr726","usgsCitation":"Anderson, B.M., 1972, Lithium in surface and ground waters of the conterminous United States: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-6, 5 leaves :map ;27 cm.; 7 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr726.","productDescription":"5 leaves :map ;27 cm.; 7 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":144904,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b15e4b07f02db6a4e55","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Anderson, Barbara M.","contributorId":75155,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Anderson","given":"Barbara","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":166153,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70009763,"text":"70009763 - 1972 - A probe for neutron activation analysis in a drill hole using 252Cf, and a Ge(Li) detector cooled by a melting cryogen","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-12-23T21:43:28.539187","indexId":"70009763","displayToPublicDate":"1972-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2906,"text":"Nuclear Instruments and Methods","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"A probe for neutron activation analysis in a drill hole using 252Cf, and a Ge(Li) detector cooled by a melting cryogen","docAbstract":"A sonde has been built for high-resolution measurement of natural or neutron-induced gamma rays in boreholes. The sonde is 7.3 cm in diameter and about 2.2 m in length and weighs about 16 kg. The lithium-compensated germanium semiconductor detector is stabilized at −185 to −188°C for as much as ten hours by a cryostatic reservoir containing melting propane. During periods when the sonde is not in use the propane is kept frozen by a gravity-fed trickle of liquid nitrogen from a reservoir temporarily attached to the cryostat section. A 252Cf source, shielded from the detector, may be placed in the bottom section of the sonde for anlysis by measurement of neutron-activation or neutron-capture gamma rays. Stability of the cryostat with changing hydrostatic pressure, absence of vibration, lack of need for power to the cryostat during operation, and freedom of orientation make the method desirable for borehole, undersea, space, and some laboratory applications.
Reorganization and recodification of shipboard procedures for collecting interstitial waters has resulted in improved and more regular collection and analysis of pore fluids. Comparative studies of waters squeezed and analyzed on shipboard and analyzed in the shore laboratory show generally good agreement, except for some aberrations whose sources are hard to track down. Influences of pressure and temperature during squeezing on composition of effluents were re-examined for clayey samples from Leg 4 cores. Pressure was not found to be significant, whereas the temperature effects are significant, but are less than variations attributable to diagenetic reactions in the sediments. Conservative constituents, such as, chloride, sodium and bromide, remain relatively constant (within about 1.5 per cent) with changing depth in the holes; but, large depletions with respect to normal sea water occur in calcium (to 0.06 g/kg), magnesium (to 0.7), potassium (to 0.20), and sulfate (to 0.11) in most of the cores. On the other hand, large enrichments of calcium (to 1.57 g/kg) and lithium (to 1.7 ppm) occurred in Holes 24 and 24A. The depletion of several constituents in pore waters of Hole 26 (Vema fracture zone) caused a drop in total salt content to as low as 31 o/oo. However, no real dilution effects are involved, since chloride and sodium values remain typical of those in ocean bottom waters.
","language":"English","publisher":"National Science Foundation","doi":"10.2973/dsdp.proc.4.119.1970","usgsCitation":"Sayles, F., Manheim, F.T., and Chan, K., 1970, Interstitial water studies on small core samples, leg 4: Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 4, p. 401-414, https://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.4.119.1970.","productDescription":"14","startPage":"401","endPage":"414","costCenters":[{"id":678,"text":"Woods Hole Coastal and Marine Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":488841,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"http://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.4.119.1970","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":370526,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sayles, F.L.","contributorId":77657,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sayles","given":"F.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":778158,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Manheim, Frank T. 0000-0003-4005-4524","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4005-4524","contributorId":20770,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Manheim","given":"Frank","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":778159,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Chan, K.M.","contributorId":95399,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Chan","given":"K.M.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":778160,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70226544,"text":"70226544 - 1970 - Macusanite occurrence, age, and composition, Macusani, Peru","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-11-23T16:36:35.006571","indexId":"70226544","displayToPublicDate":"1970-05-01T10:25:32","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5935,"text":"Bulletin of the Geological Society of America","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Macusanite occurrence, age, and composition, Macusani, Peru","docAbstract":"Macusanite, originally believed to be a type of tektite because of its sculpture, is shown to be related to sillar of the Macusani region, Peru. K-Ar measurements establish identical Pliocene ages (4.2 m.y.) for macusanite and sillar and relate these deposits to the extensive ash flows of the southern Andes. These rocks are unique for glassy rocks in that lithium, boron, and arsenic contents are very high; cesium, rubidium, tellurium, fluorine, and tin are higher than normal; zinc, copper, chromium, and zirconium are lower than normal; and high-alumina minerals such as andalusite are present.
Lithium metaborate is an effective flux for silicates and other rock-forming minerals. The glass resulting from fusion is mechanically strong, reasonably nonhygroscopic, and is readily soluble in dilute acids. These characteristics lead to its use in X-ray spectrography and in methods which require whole-rock solutions, such as atomic absorption and emission spectrometry. Difficulties have been encountered in the use of such techniques : a high-quality reagent has been difficult to obtain ; fusion conditions must be rather closely controlled; graphite crucibles used in the fusions need special treatment. Methods for overcoming these difficulties are outlined. Selected procedures for various instrumental methods of analysis are described.
X-ray analysis of Li+- and K+-saturated samples, differential thermal analysis (DTA), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and chemical analysis of 83 samples enable a distinction to be made between Wyoming, Tatatilla, Otay, Chambers, and non-ideal types of montmorillonite, and between ideal and non-ideal types of beidellite. The Greene-Kelly Li+-test differentiates between the montmorillonites and beidellites. Re-expansion with ethylene glycol after K+-saturation and heating at 300°C depends upon total net layer charge and not upon location of the charge. Wyoming-type montmorillonites characteristically have low net layer charge and re-expand to 17 Å. whereas most other montmorillonites and beidellites have a higher net layer charge and re-expand to less than 17 Å.
Major differences in dehydroxylation temperatures cannot be related consistently to the amount of Al3+-for-Si4+ substitution, nor to the amount of Mg, Fe, type of interlayer cations, or particle size. The major factor controlling temperature of dehydroxylation seems to be the amount of structural (OH). Of 19 samples analyzed by TGA, montmorillonites and the one ideal beidellite that give dehydroxylation endotherms on their DTA curves between 650° and 760°C all contain nearly the ideal amount of 4(OH) per unit cell, but the non-ideal montmorillonites and beidellites that give dehydroxylation peaks between 550° and 600°C do not. Non-ideal beidellites contain more than the ideal amount of structural (OH) and non-ideal montmorillonites seem to contain less, although the low temperature of dehydroxylation of the latter could also be due to other structural defects. Change in X-ray diffraction intensity of the 001 reflection during dehydroxylation suggests that the extra (OH) of beidellite occurs at the apex of SiO4 or AlO4 tetrahedrons with the H+ of the (OH)- polarized toward vacant cation sites in the octahedral sheet.
","language":"English","publisher":"The Clay Minerals Society","doi":"10.1346/CCMN.1969.0170302","usgsCitation":"Schultz, L.G., 1969, Lithium and potassium absorption, dehydroxylation temperature, and structural water content of aluminous smectites: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 17, no. 3, p. 115-149, https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1969.0170302.","productDescription":"36 p.","startPage":"115","endPage":"149","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219501,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"17","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a4822e4b0c8380cd67c2f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Schultz, Leonard Gene","contributorId":19146,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schultz","given":"Leonard","email":"","middleInitial":"Gene","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357730,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1346,"text":"wsp1540C - 1966 - Methods for analysis of selected metals in water by atomic absorption","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:13","indexId":"wsp1540C","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1966","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1540","chapter":"C","title":"Methods for analysis of selected metals in water by atomic absorption","docAbstract":"This manual describes atomic-absorption-spectroscopy methods for determining calcium, copper, lithium, magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, strontium and zinc in atmospheric precipitation, fresh waters, and brines. The procedures are intended to be used by water quality laboratories of the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey. Detailed procedures, calculations, and methods for the preparation of reagents are given for each element along with data on accuracy, precision, and sensitivity. Other topics discussed briefly are the principle of atomic absorption, instrumentation used, and special analytical techniques.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. G.P.O.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1540C","usgsCitation":"Fishman, M., and Downs, S.C., 1966, Methods for analysis of selected metals in water by atomic absorption: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1540, iii, 23-45 p. :ill. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1540C.","productDescription":"iii, 23-45 p. :ill. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":137473,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1540c/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26417,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1540c/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a51e4b07f02db62a131","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Fishman, Marvin J.","contributorId":87110,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fishman","given":"Marvin J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143601,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Downs, Sanford C.","contributorId":66233,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Downs","given":"Sanford","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143600,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70010627,"text":"70010627 - 1966 - Mica polytypes: Systematic description and identification","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2026-02-10T17:39:30.165809","indexId":"70010627","displayToPublicDate":"1966-01-14T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1966","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3338,"text":"Science","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Mica polytypes: Systematic description and identification","docAbstract":"X-ray studies of mica specimens from a variety of geological localities show that biotite and certain lithium-rich mica samples are composed of a mixture of different polytypes. Many of the biotite structures are new complex polytypes not before reported. A new method of designating mica polytypes is proposed. Techniques are described for the systematic generation of all the possible layer-stacking sequences of mica polytypes and for the verification of the stacking sequences in newly discovered forms.","language":"English","publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science","doi":"10.1126/science.151.3707.191","issn":"00368075","usgsCitation":"Ross, M., Takeda, H., and Wones, D.R., 1966, Mica polytypes: Systematic description and identification: Science, v. 151, no. 3707, p. 191-193, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.151.3707.191.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"191","endPage":"193","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219174,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"151","issue":"3707","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a5631e4b0c8380cd6d3f6","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ross, M.","contributorId":8026,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ross","given":"M.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359290,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Takeda, H.","contributorId":90462,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Takeda","given":"H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359291,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Wones, D. R.","contributorId":104079,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wones","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359292,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":1296,"text":"wsp1812 - 1964 - Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities of the United States, 1962","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-09-06T17:56:12","indexId":"wsp1812","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1964","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1812","title":"Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities of the United States, 1962","docAbstract":"The public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States (1960 U.S. Census) serve 9,650 million gallons of water per day (mgd) to 60 million people, which is 34 percent of the Nation's total population and 48 percent of the Nation's urban population. The amount of water used to satisfy the domestic needs as well as the needs of commerce and industry ranges from 13 mgd, which serves a population of 124,000, to 1,200 mgd, which serves a city of 8 million people.
\nThe water for the public supplies of these largest cities comes fro^n ground water wells and infiltration galleries and from surface water streams, reservoirs, and lakes. Twenty of the cities use ground water exclusively for public supplies, and 14 use a combination of ground and surface waters. Sixty-six cities use surface water solely; of these cities 37 depend solely upon reservoir water, and 20 depend solely upon natural streamflow. Water from the Great Lakes furnishes part or all of the water supply for 10 of these largest cities.
\nHardness of water, measured in parts per million (ppm), is an important factor in the usability of water supplies. Twenty-seven cities, serving a population of 8 million, have a raw-water hardness exceeding 180 ppm (\"very hard\"), but only 13 cities, serving a population of 3.7 million, have a \"very hard\" treated-water supply; and although 22 cities, serving about 10 million people, have a raw-water hardness ranging from 121 to 180 ppm (\"hard\"), only 16 cities, serving a population of 11 million, have a \"hard\" treated-water supply. Only 16 cities, serving a population of 16 million people, have a raw-water hardness ranging from 61 to 120 ppm (\"moderately hard\"), whereas 41 cities, serving a population of 22 million, have a treated-water supply having a hardness within this desirable range. A few cities that have a \"soft\" raw water add lime to control corrosion and consequently increase their water hardness to more than 61 ppm. Thirty cities, serving a population of about 23 million, have a treated-water supply with a hardness of less than 61 ppm.
\nThe dissolved-solids content in raw-water supplies of 27 cities, which serve a total population of slightly more than 21 million people, is 100 ppr^ or less. Thirty-eight cities serving a total population of 23 million people have raw-water supplies with a dissolved-solids content between 101 and 250 ppm, whereas 48 cities, serving a population of 28 million about half the population of these 1 2 PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES, 1962 cities furnish water having this range of dissolved solids. Twentv-nine cities serving a total population of 11 million people have raw-water supplies that contain between 251 to 500 ppm of dissolved solids. Because some o* these cities treat their water supply, 22 cities serving 8 million people furnish water having a dissolved-solids content between 251 and 500 ppm. Only six cities, serving a population of about iy2 million people, have raw-water supplies containing more than 500 ppm of dissolved solids; four of these cities soften the water and consequently reduce the dissolved-solids content. Thus, about 1 million people in three cities receive water containing more than 500 ppm of dissolved solids.
\nChemical analyses of treated-water supplies indicate that more than 90 percent of the supplies contain less than (a) 500 ppm of dissolved solids, (b) 100 ppm of sulfate, (c) 50 ppm each of calcium, sodium, and chloride, (d) 30 ppm of silica, (e) 20 ppm of magnesium, (f) 5 ppm each of potassium and nitrate, and (g) 1 ppm of fluoride.
\nSpectrographic analyses, reported in micrograms per liter (/*g per 1), show that 87 percent of the treated-water supplies contain less than 500 /*g per 1 of aluminum and more than 90 percent of the supplies contain less than (a) 500 /*g per 1 of strontium, (b) 150 /*g per 1 of iron, (c) 50 ^g per 1 of lithium, (d) 10 /ug per 1 each of molybdenum, nickel, lead, and vanadium, and (e) 5 /*g per 1 each cf chromium, rubidium, and titanium.
\nRadiochemical analyses of treated-water supplies reveal that the maximum beta activity of these supplies is 130 picocuries per liter (pc per 1) and the maximum activity due to radium content is 2.5 pe per 1, both of which are well under the recommended maximum limits for drinking water.
\nThe report is divided into two sections. The first describes the uses of water in large cities, the raw-water supplies available for public supplies, tl-<; major and minor constituents and the properties of water, the methods of analyses, the treatment of water, the effects of chemical treatment on constituents and properties of water, and the costs of water treatment. The second is a city-by-city inventory that gives (a) the population of the city, (b) the adjacent communities supplied by the city water system, (c) the total population served, (d) the sources of water supply (including auxiliary and emergency supplies), (e) the average amount of water used daily, (f) the lowest 30-day mean discharge of streams used for public supply during recent years, (g) the treatment of water, (h) the rated capacity of each water-treatment plant, and (i) the storage capacity for raw and finished water. For 58 of the cities, the sources of water, the location of water-treatment plants, and the areas served by the city system are shown on maps. Chemical, spectrographic, and radiochemical analyses of treated water and chemical and spectrographic analyses for many of the raw-water supplies are presented in tabular form.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington,D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1812","usgsCitation":"Durfor, C.N., and Becker, E., 1964, Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities of the United States, 1962: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1812, ix, 364 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1812.","productDescription":"ix, 364 p.","numberOfPages":"372","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":346,"text":"Indiana Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":532,"text":"Pennsylvania Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":610,"text":"Utah Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":26290,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1812/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":137036,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1812/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United 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Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The peg claims spodumene pegmatites, Maine","docAbstract":"The Peg Claims pegmatites are located southwest of Rockland in the towns of Warren and Cushing, Knox County, Maine. These pegmatites are representative of a group of zoned, granitic, lithium-bearing pegmatites in which spodumene is present nearly from wall to wall. The pegmatites are discordant, steeply dipping, tabular bodies in the Penobscot quartz-mica schist near the Waldoboro granite. A narrow quartz-tourmaline-muscovite-apatite aureole is commonly developed around each of the pegmatites and around inclusions of country rock in the pegmatites. The pegmatites are zoned, and each may be subdivided into: (1) a narrow quartz-muscovite border zone; (2) a narrow albite-quartz-muscovite wall zone; (3) and an albite-quartz-spodumene-perthite core that constitutes most of the pegmatite. Cross-cutting, fine-grained, quartz-albite-spodumene-muscovite lenses are found within pegmatite cores. The bulk mineralogy and variations in the mineralogy from zone to zone of the largest body (Dike 1) were determined by megascopic mineral point-counts. There is a decrease of albite, quartz, and muscovite and an increase of spodumene and perthite from the border and wall zones into the core. The alkali contents of Dike 1 and of each of its zones were determined by flame photometer and X-ray fluorescence analyses. The amount of Na20 decreases and the amounts of K 2O, Li 20, Rb 20, and CS 2O increase from the border and wall zones into the core. Estimated bulk compositions of Dike 1 and of each of its zones were computed. It is concluded that the distribution, structural features, bulk chemistry, and the mineralogical, chemical, and textural zoning of the pegmatites are consistent with development by fractional crystallization of a pegma-titic fluid in a restricted system.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.58.1.84","usgsCitation":"Sundelius, H., 1963, The peg claims spodumene pegmatites, Maine: Economic Geology, v. 58, no. 1, p. 84-106, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.58.1.84.","productDescription":"23 p.","startPage":"84","endPage":"106","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386118,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Maine","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -68.15917968749999,\n 47.3834738721015\n ],\n [\n -68.92822265625,\n 47.204642388766935\n ],\n [\n -69.01611328125,\n 47.39834920035926\n ],\n [\n -69.27978515625,\n 47.502358951968574\n ],\n [\n -69.98291015625,\n 46.7248003746672\n ],\n [\n -70.048828125,\n 46.40756396630067\n ],\n [\n -70.33447265624999,\n 46.17983040759436\n ],\n [\n -70.77392578125,\n 45.506346901083425\n ],\n [\n -70.99365234375,\n 45.336701909968134\n ],\n [\n -70.99365234375,\n 43.32517767999296\n ],\n [\n -70.72998046875,\n 43.100982876188546\n ],\n [\n -70.400390625,\n 43.37311218382002\n ],\n [\n -69.12597656249999,\n 44.008620115415354\n ],\n [\n -66.99462890625,\n 44.63739123445585\n ],\n [\n -66.81884765625,\n 44.77793589631623\n ],\n [\n -67.21435546875,\n 45.22848059584359\n ],\n [\n -67.74169921875,\n 47.08508535995386\n ],\n [\n -68.15917968749999,\n 47.3834738721015\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"58","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1963-01-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sundelius, H. W.","contributorId":44511,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sundelius","given":"H. W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":816787,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010491,"text":"70010491 - 1963 - Implications of the minor element content of some major streams of the world","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-19T18:13:37.174725","indexId":"70010491","displayToPublicDate":"1963-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1963","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1759,"text":"Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Implications of the minor element content of some major streams of the world","docAbstract":"Of 15 or more minor elements in the world's principal river waters only aluminum, iron, manganese, barium and strontium range much over
Hydrologic and geochemical aspects of continental runoff are strongly implied in observations of minor element content of large rivers. Evidence to date is that median values of
Waters of widely differing chemical compositions have been considered at least in part volcanic in origin, and are commonly associated with each other in the same area. Do any or all of these types contain volcanic components, and if so, how are the different types derived?
To determine the probable characteristics of volcanic waters, the writer has selected hot-spring groups that are particularly high in temperature and associated heat flow, are associated with late Tertiary or Quaternary volcanism, and are therefore most likely to contain some water and chemical components of direct volcanic origin. Of the different types of water that occur in these groups, one of the most common is characterized chemically by a dominance of sodium chloride.
Isotopic evidence indicates that the contribution of water of direct volcanic origin is not large and is probably no more than 5 per cent in typical sodium-chloride springs.
The compositions of volcanic waters are believed to be determined by: [1] type of magma and stage of crystallization; [2] temperature and pressure of the emanation at different stages during and after departure from the magma; [3] chemical composition, relative quantity, and depth of penetration of mixing meteoric water and water of other origin; and [4] reactions with wall rocks. Although the type of magma and its stage of crystallization are of major interest and have been emphasized in the past, the outstanding characteristics of volcanic emanations at and near the surface of the earth seem to be controlled for the most part by the other factors.
Nonvolatile compounds are slightly to highly soluble in steam at high pressure, and high-density steam has solvent properties similar to those of liquid water. In the volcanic sodium-chloride waters, the high ratio of lithium to sodium and potassium is shown to indicate that alkalies were transported as alkali halides dissolved in a dense vapor. This in turn demands a deep circulation of meteoric water for steam to condense at high pressure and for the halides to remain in solution. The depth of circulation of meteoric water in the sodium-chloride spring systems is believed to be in the order of 2 miles. Where circulation of meteoric water is shallow, the vapors rise and expand at low pressure, which does not permit transport of substances of low volatility; some type of water other than the sodium-chloride type is formed. The common volcanic sodium-chloride waters are therefore concluded to be the diluted product of high-density emanations, modified by reactions with wall rocks and by precipitation of the less soluble components.
Emanations at high temperature and relatively low pressure consist almost entirely of steam and volatile components. Their compositions are therefore relatively simple, and their ability to transport matter of low volatility is very limited.
The sodium-chloride type is probably gradational into acid-sulfate-chloride waters. There is some evidence that, under conditions not well understood, sulfur may be emitted as SO2, SO3, or other sulfur species of intermediate valence, rather than as H2S or S. Other major types of volcanic waters are called sodium bicarbonate, acid sulfate, and calcium bicarbonate; the first two tend to be distinct, but the calcium-bicarbonate type clearly grades into the sodium-chloride type. The writer concludes that, in general, all these are derived from the sodium-chloride waters as a result of physical environment or of reactions with wall rocks.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"White, D.E., 1957, Thermal waters of volcanic origin: GSA Bulletin, v. 68, no. 12, p. 1637-1658, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"1637","endPage":"1658","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386422,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"68","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, Donald E.","contributorId":76787,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817420,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70221358,"text":"70221358 - 1957 - Magmatic, connate, and metamorphic waters","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-11T13:17:43.45072","indexId":"70221358","displayToPublicDate":"1957-06-11T08:14:41","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1723,"text":"GSA Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Magmatic, connate, and metamorphic waters","docAbstract":"Some major types of water of “deep” origin are believed to be recognizable from their chemical and isotopic compositions. Oil-field brines dominated by sodium and calcium chlorides differ markedly from average ocean water. In general, the brines are believed to be connate in origin (“fossil” sea water) with a negligible to high proportion of meteoric water. Many brines, particularly in pre-Tertiary rocks, are much higher in salinity than sea water and are greatly enriched in calcium as well as sodium chloride. Brines near the salinity of sea water are generally higher, relative to sea water, in bicarbonate, iodine, boron, lithium, silica, ammonium, and water-soluble organic compounds, and lower in sulfate, potassium, and magnesium.
Many changes take place after sea water is entrapped in newly deposited marine sediments: (1) Iodine, silicon, boron, nitrogen, and other elements have been selectively concentrated in organisms that decompose during and after burial in sediments. Many of the elements may redissolve in the interstitial water. (2) Bacteria are active in the sediments and reduce sulfate to sulfide and produce methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and other products. (3) Some elements have been selectively removed from sea water by inorganic processes, such as adsorption on clays and colloidal matter. When this matter is reconstituted by diagenetic and other changes, some components are redissolved. The abundance of lithium and possibly boron and other elements may be controlled to a considerable extent by these inorganic processes. (4) The interstitial water may react chemically with enclosing sediments and produce dolomite, reconstituted clays, and other minerals. The high loss of magnesium relative to calcium in most connate waters is probably caused by such reactions.
Volcanic hot-spring waters of different compositions have been discussed in an accompanying paper (White, 1957). The most significant type is believed to be dominated by sodium chloride, and is best explained as originating from dense gases driven at high temperature and pressure from magma and containing much matter of low volatility that is in solution because of the solvent properties of high-density steam. This dense vapor is condensed in and greatly diluted by deeply circulating meteoric water. Most other types of volcanic water are believed to be derived from the sodium-chloride type.
Volcanic sodium-chloride waters are similar in many respects to connate waters but are believed to be distinguishable by relatively high lithium, fluorine, silica, boron, sulfur, CO2, arsenic, and antimony; by relatively low calcium and magnesium; and by lack of hydrocarbons, water-soluble organic compounds, and perhaps ammonia and nitrate. Relatively high boron and combined CO2 are alone not reliable indicators of a volcanic origin.
During compaction, rocks lose most of their interstitial high-chloride water; much additional water may then be lost during progressive metamorphism, and the content changes from about 5 per cent in shale to perhaps 1 per cent in gneiss. This expelled water is here called metamorphic. Because of pressure and permeability gradients, it must normally escape upward and mix with connate and meteoric water. Even though large quantities must exist, no example of metamorphic water has been positively identified.
Some thermal springs in California are high in salinity and relatively low in temperature and apparent associated heat flow. Some are clearly connate in origin. Other springs are characterized by very high combined carbon dioxide and boron, relative to chloride. Their compositions are considerably different from known connate and volcanic waters and are believed to be best explained by a metamorphic origin.
Although some major types of deep water seem to be recognizable, there is much danger of oversimplifying the problems. Many waters are no doubt mixtures of different types, and some of high salinity result from dissolution of salts by meteoric water.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1659:MCAMW]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"White, D.E., 1957, Magmatic, connate, and metamorphic waters: GSA Bulletin, v. 68, no. 12, p. 1659-1682, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1659:MCAMW]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"24 p.","startPage":"1659","endPage":"1682","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386420,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"68","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, Donald E.","contributorId":76787,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817419,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":47344,"text":"b1027G - 1955 - Lithium resources of North America","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":47344,"text":"b1027G - 1955 - Lithium resources of North America","indexId":"b1027G","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"chapter":"G","title":"Lithium resources of North America"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":33207,"text":"b1027 - 1956 - Contributions to economic geology, 1955","indexId":"b1027","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1955"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":33207,"text":"b1027 - 1956 - Contributions to economic geology, 1955","indexId":"b1027","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1955"},"lastModifiedDate":"2026-02-17T22:07:07.464251","indexId":"b1027G","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1027","chapter":"G","title":"Lithium resources of North America","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Contributions to economic geology, 1955","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/b1027G","usgsCitation":"Norton, J., and Schlegel, D.M., 1955, Lithium resources of North America: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1027, 26 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/b1027G.","productDescription":"26 p.","startPage":"325","endPage":"350","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":171936,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1027g/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":99935,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1027g/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"otherGeospatial":"North 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America\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b15e4b07f02db6a4e6a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Norton, James J.","contributorId":6127,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Norton","given":"James J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235093,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schlegel, Dorothy McKenney","contributorId":31847,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schlegel","given":"Dorothy","email":"","middleInitial":"McKenney","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235094,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70114228,"text":"tei159 - 1955 - Relationship of uranium and other trace elements to post-Cretaceous vulcanism","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-07-14T13:44:41","indexId":"tei159","displayToPublicDate":"1958-08-17T14:20:00","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"159","title":"Relationship of uranium and other trace elements to post-Cretaceous vulcanism","docAbstract":"A regional study of the distribution of uranium, boron, tin, beryllium, niobium, lanthanum, lead, zirconium, lithium, and fluorine in 112 samples of Cenozoic volcanic rocks of predominately rhyolitic and dacitic composition has shown that the content of uranium has a significantly high positive correlation with that of niobium, beryllium, and fluorine, a lower but still significant positive correlation with lithium and tin, a significant negative correlation with boron and lanthanum, and no significant correlation with zirconium and lead. A study of the relation of content of the several elements to the geographic provenance shows significant variation with provenance for all these elements, except tin and lanthanum. On the basis of these variations and on patterns of consistency, five comagmatic provinces, one of which is divided into three sub-provinces, have been delimited, in part, on a map of the western United States. The patter of distribution of boron is significantly different from that of the other elements. The regional difference are perhaps best explained by structural control of the effectiveness of vertical transport.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei159","usgsCitation":"Coats, R.R., 1955, Relationship of uranium and other trace elements to post-Cretaceous vulcanism: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 159, 66 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/tei159.","productDescription":"66 p.","numberOfPages":"67","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":289941,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":289940,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0159/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -124.79,31.31 ], [ -124.79,49.0 ], [ -102.02,49.0 ], [ -102.02,31.31 ], [ -124.79,31.31 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53aa9dfce4b065055fab167a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Coats, Robert R.","contributorId":37788,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Coats","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":495286,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":71966,"text":"tei473 - 1954 - Lithium resources of North America","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:14:02","indexId":"tei473","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1954","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"473","title":"Lithium resources of North America","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/tei473","usgsCitation":"Norton, J., and Schlegel, D.M., 1954, Lithium resources of North America: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 473, 38 p., 1 fig., https://doi.org/10.3133/tei473.","productDescription":"38 p., 1 fig.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":193270,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/473/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":91057,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/473/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b15e4b07f02db6a4e04","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Norton, James J.","contributorId":6127,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Norton","given":"James J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284929,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schlegel, Dorothy McKenney","contributorId":31847,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schlegel","given":"Dorothy","email":"","middleInitial":"McKenney","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284930,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":71237,"text":"tei139 - 1952 - Pegmatites of the Crystal Mountain district, Larimer County, Colorado","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-07-14T13:28:29","indexId":"tei139","displayToPublicDate":"1955-01-01T11:37:40","publicationYear":"1952","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"139","title":"Pegmatites of the Crystal Mountain district, Larimer County, Colorado","docAbstract":"The Front Range of Colorado is composed chiefly of schists of the pre-Cambrian Idaho Springs formation which have been intruded by a variety of granitic batholiths. In the Crystal Mountain district the Mount Olympus granite, a satellite of the Longs Peak batholith, forms sills and essentially concordant multiple intrusions in quartz-mica schist that dips southward at moderate to steep angles. A great number of pegmatites accompanied and followed the intrusion of the sills, and formed concordant and discordant bodies in schist and granite.
\nOver 1,300 pegmatites in the Hyatt area north of the Big Thompson River are mapped and individually described. There are 27 pegmatites in the area that are made up of a wall zone and a core, and one, the pegmatite at the Hyatt mine, is composed of five zones. The largest pegmatites in the area are discordant in schist and occupy zones that are interpreted to be tear faults and tension fractures produced by the successive intrusions of granite that formed multiple sills. The majority of pegmatites in the large multiple sills were emplaced along the foliation and fractures.
\nThe composition of 96 percent of the pegmatites is granitic, 3.5 percent are quartz-rich pegmatites, and a few are tourmaline-rich. The pegmatites were intruded over a period of time and probably were derived from a granitic magma at different stages during differentiation. Solutions escaping from many of the pegmatites tournalinized and silicified the wall rocks for a few inches to two feet, but chemical and spectrographic analyses fail to show the transport of any other constituents.
\nPerthite, plagioclase, and quartz are the essential minerals of the pegmatites, and muscovite is a minor but widespread constituent. Tourmaline, garnet, beryl, and apatite are common accessory minerals, and lithiophillitite-triphylite, bismuthinite, uraninite, columbite-tantalite, and chrysoberyl are rare constituents. Beryl is found in 250 or 27 percent of the pegmatites and makes up 0.01 percent or more of 77 bodies. The beryl-bearing pegmatites are richest in two of the three large granite masses, and are somewhat less rich at a distance of more than a thousand feet from the margins of the intrusives, but contain the least beryl in the thousand-foot belt immediately surrounding the intrusives. The Hyatt pegmatite is by far the richest deposit of beryl in the area mapped.
\nMost of the pegmatites mapped are \"unzoned\" or homogeneous pegmatites. All gradations are visible between bodies consisting of uniform texture and mineral distribution to zoned pegmatites. The interpretation is made that, for most pegmatites, the initial composition determines whether or not zones will form. Pegmatites containing many zones can form from a magma composed of the elements in perthite, plagioclase, quartz, and muscovite, depending on the proportions of the components crystallizing at any given time. The complexly zoned deposits depend for their formation on the presence of a number of the rarer elements, principally lithium. Replacement textures in zones result from the interaction of the rest-liquid with the earlier-formed solid crystals. No mappable pegmatite in the Crystal Mountain district formed from the replacement of pre-existing pegmatite by solutions escaping from the rest-liquid, or by solutions originating outside the pegmatite.
\nThree beryl-bearing zoned pegmatites, the Hyatt, Big Boulder, and Buckhorn Mica deposits, were explored by core drilling. Each deposit is mapped and described in detail, and the mineral reserves evaluated. The exploration indicates a total of 2,000 tons of beryl, of which 480 tons is estimated to be recoverable by hand sorting. The mapping of the 3 3/4-square mile Hyatt area indicates beryl in sufficient abundance to infer beryl resources of an additional 1,150 tons.
\nSmall tonnages of scrap mica and perthite may be obtained from the Hyatt and Big Boulder prospects, and columbite-tantalite may occur in sufficient amounts at the Buckhorn Mica mine and Tantalum claim to produce several hundred pounds as a byproduct of beryl mining. Dumps at the various deposits contain 25 to 50 tons of beryl.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei139","usgsCitation":"Thurston, W.R., 1952, Pegmatites of the Crystal Mountain district, Larimer County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 139, 167 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/tei139.","productDescription":"167 p.","numberOfPages":"168","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":289925,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":289924,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0139/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","county":"Larimer County","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -106.1954,40.2578 ], [ -106.1954,40.9984 ], [ -104.9431,40.9984 ], [ -104.9431,40.2578 ], [ -106.1954,40.2578 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53aa9dfae4b065055fab1674","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Thurston, William R.","contributorId":9712,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thurston","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":283846,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70011130,"text":"70011130 - 1951 - Determination of lithium in rocks: Fluorometric method","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-12T17:18:26","indexId":"70011130","displayToPublicDate":"1951-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1951","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Determination of lithium in rocks: Fluorometric method","docAbstract":"The gravimetric method in general use for the determination of lithium is tedious, and the final weighed product often contains other alkali metals. A fluorometric method was developed to shorten the time required for the analysis and to assure that the final determination is for lithium alone. This procedure is based on the complex formed between lithium and 8-hydroxyquinoline. The fluorescence is developed in a slightly alkaline solution of 95% alcohol and measurement is made on a photoelectric fluorometer. Separation from the ore is carried out by the wet method or by the distillation procedure. Sodium and potassium are removed by alcohol and ether, but complete separation is not necessary. Comparison of analyzed samples shows excellent agreement with spectrographic and gravimetric methods. The fluorometric method is more rapid than the gravimetric and produces more conclusive results. Another useful application is in the preparation of standard lithium solutions from reagent quality salts when a known standard is available. In this case no separations are necessary.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Analytical Chemistry","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","issn":"00032700","usgsCitation":"White, C.E., Fletcher, M.H., and Parks, J., 1951, Determination of lithium in rocks: Fluorometric method: Analytical Chemistry, v. 23, no. 3, p. 478-481.","startPage":"478","endPage":"481","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":220688,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"23","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059ffb2e4b0c8380cd4f339","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, C. E.","contributorId":24915,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"White","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":360347,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Fletcher, M. H.","contributorId":53438,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fletcher","given":"M.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":360349,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Parks, J.","contributorId":26814,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Parks","given":"J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":360348,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":3532,"text":"cir89 - 1950 - Coal resources of New Mexico","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:34","indexId":"cir89","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1950","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"89","title":"Coal resources of New Mexico","docAbstract":"A study of water quality degradation due to brine contamination was made in an area of about 1,700 sq mi in east-central Oklahoma. The study area coincides in part with the outcrop of the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer of Pennsylvanian age. Water samples collected from 180 wells completed in the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer and at 167 sites from streams draining the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer show scattered occurrences of water quality degradation by brine. Degradation of water quality by brine is indicated where: (1) chloride concentration is > or = to 400 mg/L; (2) bromide concentration is > or = 2 mg/L; (3) the ratio of sodium plus chloride to dissolved solids is > or = 0.64. Ratios of secondary importance that also indicate water quality degradation by brine in the area are: (1) a ratio of lithium to bromide < or = 0.01, when the chloride concentration is > or = 400 mg/L; (2) a sodium/chloride ratio of about 0.46; (3) a sodium/bromide ratio of about 92; and (4) a bromide/chloride ratio of about 0.0048. Values for bromide, lithium, strontium, dissolved solids, calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate concentrations were subjected to analysis of variance based on use of the index values in partition data sets. The analysis of variance showed the significance of the indexes for all constituents except sulfate. The two most reliable brine indicators are chloride and bromide. Statistically, chloride is a slightly more reliable index than bromide. The developed indexes can be used to indicate water quality degradation by brine. Accuracy is improved if both indexes are used. When geophysical logs from 133 pairs of oil and gas wells were analyzed, data from 5 pairs of wells indicated a possible rise in the interface between fresh water and salt water in the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer. Therefore , any rise of the interface is local rather than regional. The criteria developed in this study indicate that brine has degraded water quality at 63 sites on streams draining the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer, at 15 water wells completed in the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer, and at 5 oil and gas wells penetrating the Vamoosa-Ada aquifer. (Author 's abstract)","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"[Interior Duplicating Section],","doi":"10.3133/cir89","usgsCitation":"Read, C.B., Duffner, R.T., Wood, G., and Zapp, A., 1950, Coal resources of New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 89, ii, 24 p. :fold. map, tables. ;27 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir89.","productDescription":"ii, 24 p. :fold. map, tables. ;27 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":123345,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1950/0089/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":30546,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1950/0089/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30547,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1950/0089/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4804e4b07f02db4ceff3","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Read, Charles Brian","contributorId":68716,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Read","given":"Charles","email":"","middleInitial":"Brian","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147108,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Duffner, R. T.","contributorId":66243,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Duffner","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147107,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Wood, G. H.","contributorId":106096,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wood","given":"G. H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147109,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Zapp, A.D.","contributorId":51280,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zapp","given":"A.D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147106,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ]}