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Ten cross sections and three seismic profiles of regional extent through the subsurface of the Appalachian basin are presented in chapter E of this volume (fig. 1). These cross sections and seismic profiles are subdivided into four groups: (1) five restored cross sections through Cambrian and Ordovician rocks, (2) three restored cross sections through Lower and Upper (part) Silurian rocks, (3) two geologic (structural) cross sections through the entire preserved section of Paleozoic rocks, and (4) three seismic profiles through the entire preserved section of Paleozoic rocks.

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The stratigraphic units in the restored cross sections are constructed with respect to a horizontal lithologic datum, whereas the stratigraphic units in the geologic (structural) cross sections are constructed with respect to sea level. The control points for the cross sections are exploratory wells drilled for oil and gas, and many of these wells reached igneous and metamorphic basement rocks of Mesoproterozoic age. Each cross section is illustrated in detail and discussed at length in its respective chapter.

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The cross sections and seismic profiles included in this volume were previously published between 1991 and 2009 as U.S. Geological Survey publications; some of these publications were subsequently revised. The earliest cross sections (chapters E.2.1 to E.2.4) refer to an unpublished cross section (A–A′); that cross section was never published later and is not the A–A′ included here as chapter E.3.3.

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The cross sections are included in this volume in their original form to provide support for assessments and research studies in the Appalachian basin. There are two additional USGS publications that are not included in this volume but may be useful for research studies: Ryder and others (1996) and Ryder and others (2012).

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The appendixes in chapters E.4.1 and E.4.2 include (1) Log ASCII Standard (LAS) files, which encode gamma-ray, neutron, density, and other logs in text files that can be used by most well-logging software programs; and (2) graphic well-log traces. In the appendix to chapter E.4.1, the well-log traces are accompanied by lithologic descriptions with formation tops.

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Coal is one of our most important domestic energy resources, producing 37 percent of the Nation’s electricity in 2012. Coal mining within the Appalachian basin has been ongoing for three centuries and, cumulatively, the basin is the most productive coal region in the United States. In 2012, only the Powder River basin produced more coal than the Appalachian basin. Coal is the most important mined product within the basin, and research on the quality and quantity of the coal is one of the primary functions of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the State geological surveys of Alabama, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. The USGS and the State geological surveys historically have worked together on coal research and assessment projects to achieve mutually beneficial science goals.

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The 2000 USGS coal resource assessment of the Appalachian basin (Northern and Central Appalachian Basin Coal Regions Assessment Team, 2001, USGS Professional Paper 1625–C) was done in close collaboration with scientists of the State geological surveys of Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. Five of the top-producing coal beds and coal zones within the basin were quantitatively assessed, and results show that ample coal resources remain. Coal quality, not coal quantity, is the principal driver for coal production and use within the basin and will be for the foreseeable future.

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Cumulative coalbed-methane (CBM) production within the Appalachian basin has been about 2.3 trillion cubic feet (TCF), and most of the production has come from Alabama and Virginia (Milici and Polyak, this volume, chap. G.2). Significant CBM resources occur throughout the coal-producing States in the Appalachian basin, and commercial production is possible in all.

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State geological surveys are concentrating on mapping and correlating coal beds and coal zones and studying CBM potential and production. Both State surveys and the USGS are researching the potential for carbon dioxide sequestration in unmined coal beds and other geologic reservoirs. In addition, the State geological surveys continue their long-term collaboration with the USGS and provide coal stratigraphic data to the National Coal Resources Data System (NCRDS).

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Although small quantities of coal first were produced from the Appalachian basin in the early 1700s, the first production statistics of significance were gathered during the census of 1830 (Eavenson, 1942). Since then, about 35 billion short tons of bituminous coal have been produced from the Appalachian basin from an original potential coal reserve (PCR(o)) estimated to range from about 60 to 90 billion short tons. The term “reserve” refers to economically producible coal, and a “potential coal reserve” (PCR(n)) is an estimate of the amount of coal economically recoverable in a region (State, coal field) over a defined time period (n = number of years) and under a range of economic, societal, and technological conditions. Thus, the current cumulative production plus the PCR(n) equals an estimated cumulative production (ECP(n)). The maps in this report (oversized figures 1, 2, 3, and 4) were produced from a digital database of historical and current coal production records by county. Sources of the original data include various State geological surveys, the U.S. Geological Survey, the former U.S. Bureau of Mines, and the U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Information Administration. This report is part of the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Coal Resource Assessment Project.

\n

The Appalachian basin consistently has lead all other regions of the country in coal production and, until 1970, produced 70 percent or more of the coal produced in the Nation (fig. 5). Since 1970, however, the relative amount of coal coming from the Appalachian basin has declined from about 70 percent to 43 percent. Historically, coal production from the Appalachian basin may be divided into three economically driven cycles: (1) from the inception of exploration and development of the resource through World War I (1914) to the Depression (1929 to the early 1940s); (2) from the Depression through World War II (1944) to the production decline in 1961; and (3) from 1961 through the current period of increasing demand for coal by the electric power industry (fig. 6). Annual coal production from the Appalachian basin peaked in 1997 at 476.8 million tons and has since declined to 375.3 million tons as of 2003.

\n

This report on Appalachian basin coal production consists of four plates and associated graphs and tables that were used to construct the maps. Figure 1 shows the decade of greatest coal production by county. Figure 2 shows the amount of coal produced for each county (in thousands of short tons) during the year of greatest coal production. These data are sorted by decade. Figure 3 illustrates the cumulative coal production (in thousands of short tons) for each county since about the beginning of the 20th century. Figure 4 shows 2003 production by county in thousands of short tons.

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The Appalachian basin, one of the largest Pennsylvanian bituminous coal-producing regions in the world, currently contains nearly one-half of the top 15 coal-producing States in the United States (Energy Information Agency, 2006). Anthracite of Pennsylvanian age occurs in synclinal basins in eastern Pennsylvania, but production is minimal. A simplified correlation chart was compiled from published and unpublished sources as a means of visualizing currently accepted stratigraphic relations between the rock formations, coal beds, coal zones, and key stratigraphic units in Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The thickness of each column is based on chronostratigraphic divisions (Lower, Middle, and Upper Pennsylvanian), not the thickness of strata. Researchers of Pennsylvanian strata in the Appalachian basin also use biostratigraphic markers and other relative and absolute geologic age associations between the rocks to better understand the spatial relations of the strata. Thus, the stratigraphic correlation data in this chart should be considered provisional and will be updated as coal-bearing rocks within the Appalachian coal regions continue to be evaluated.

\n

Most geologic formations are identified and defined by the distinctive lithologic features they contain. However, formations of Pennsylvanian age in the Appalachian basin and the Pennsylvania Anthracite region have traditionally been described and named to reflect the presence or absence of economic coal beds and coarse-grained sandstone units, most of which have since been proven to be locally or regionally discontinuous (Ruppert and Rice, 2001). Many of the stratigraphic names and boundaries used for the coals and other geologic units in the Pennsylvanian rocks differ between States or regions (fig. 1). Because local and regional stratigraphic complexities occur within some States, a multiplicity of State-specific names is introduced that may be confusing to those conducting regional geologic assessments in the basin.

\n

Nonetheless, many of these stratigraphic names and boundaries have some elements that allow for regional stratigraphic correlation. For instance, many coals in the northern Appalachian basin coal region are easier to trace over greater distances than coals in the central and southern Appalachian basin coal regions (fig. 2). The Upper Pennsylvanian Pittsburgh coal bed (fig. 1) of the northern Appalachian basin coal region, for example, occurs as a synchronogenic bed deposited on a laterally continuous surface of sediments (Cross, 1954; Tewalt and others, 2001). The base of the Pittsburgh coal bed is designated as the contact between the Conemaugh Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) and the overlying Monongahela Group in western Pennsylvania, western Maryland, Ohio, and West Virginia (fig. 1). Therefore, in areas where the Pittsburgh coal bed is present, there is little controversy over its position or the placement of the boundary between the Conemaugh and Monongahela Groups.

\n

In other regions of the basin, group and formation boundaries are more difficult to identify over extensive areas. One example is the placement of the contact between the New River Formation and the overlying Kanawha Formation—a boundary that is not easily defined beyond the area where these units were first defined in West Virginia. At the type section of the Kanawha Formation, the base of the Lower Douglas coal zone (fig. 1) defines the contact between the Kanawha Formation and the underlying New River Formation (Rice and others, 1994b). However, subsequent mapping has demonstrated that the Lower Douglas coal zone is regionally discontinuous and in many parts of West Virginia is absent (Blake and others, 2002). Where absent, the Nuttall Sandstone Member of the underlying New River Formation sometimes occurs in the stratigraphic position of the Lower Douglas coal zone. Yet, even the Nuttall Sandstone Member has been found to be regionally discontinuous and of varying thickness throughout its extent, features that hinder its use as a regional stratigraphic marker bed in the Appalachian basin.

\n

Because of the many names used to identify individual coal beds and coal zones in the historic Appalachian basin coal-mining districts, coal bed designations may differ even more than stratigraphic nomenclature. In eastern Kentucky, northwest of the Pine Mountain thrust fault on the Cumberland overthrust sheet, for example, coal beds or coal zones equivalent to the Lower Elkhorn coal zone (within the Pikeville Formation) are identified also as the Eagle coal zone, Pond Creek coal zone, and Blue Gem coal bed (fig. 1). Southeast of the Pine Mountain thrust fault, yet still in Kentucky, equivalent coals in this same interval are known as the Imboden and Rich Mountain. Moreover, this same interval of coal is identified as the Blue Gem coal in Tennessee, the Imboden coal bed or Campbell Creek or Pond Creek coal zones in Virginia, and the Eagle coal zone in West Virginia.

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One of the more recent maps of Appalachian basin oil and gas fields (and the adjoining Black Warrior basin) is the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) compilation by Mast and others (1998) (see Trippi and others, this volume, chap. I.1). This map is part of a larger oil and gas field map for the conterminous United States that was derived by Mast and others (1998) from the Well History Control System (WHCS) database of Petroleum Information, Inc. (now IHS Energy Group). Rather than constructing the map from the approximately 500,000 proprietary wells in the Appalachian and Black Warrior part of the WHCS database, Mast and others (1998) subdivided the region into a grid of 1-mi2 (square mile) cells and allocated an appropriate type of hydrocarbon production (oil production, gas production, oil and gas production, or explored but no production) to each cell. Each 1-mi2 cell contains from 0 to 5 or more exploratory and (or) development wells. For example, if the wells in the 1-mi2 cell consisted of three oil wells, one gas well, and one dry well, then the cell would be characterized on the map as an area of oil and gas production. The map by Mast and others (1998) accurately shows the distribution and types of hydrocarbon accumulation in the Appalachian and Black Warrior basins, but it does not show the names of individual fields. To determine the locality and name of individual oil and gas fields, one must refer to State oil and gas maps (for example, Harper and others, 1982), which are generally published at scales of 1:250,000 or 1:500,000 (see References Cited), and (or) published journal articles.

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Other recent USGS Appalachian basin oil and gas field maps show the distribution of oil and gas production with a cell size as small as 0.25 mi2 , such as the maps converted by Trippi and others (this volume, chap. I.1) from proprietary well-location maps used in the USGS 2002 assessment of oil and gas resources of the Appalachian basin (Milici and others, 2003). Another set of Appalachian basin oil and gas cell maps (based on a cell size of 0.25 mi2 ) was created for the USGS 1995 National Assessment of United States Oil and Gas Resources (Gautier and others, 1995; Beeman and others, 1996).

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Between 1991 and 1994, R.T. Ryder (with R.E. Mattick, J.B. Roen, and J.R. San Filipo, USGS, Reston, Va.) compiled oil and gas fields on stable-base mylar greenline base maps (scale 1:500,000) for selected plays in the Appalachian basin. These map compilations included field names and field numbers where assigned by State agencies. The purpose of the maps was to provide supporting data for the USGS 1995 National Assessment of United States Oil and Gas Resources (Gautier and others, 1995). In particular, the greenline oil and gas field maps were linked, where possible, with production data from State records and (or) published literature in order to determine ultimate sizes for conventional fields and estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) values for wells in continuous accumulations (for definitions of the conventional and continuous terminology, see USGS National Oil and Gas Assessment Team, 1995; Schmoker, 1997; Schenk and Pollastro, 2002). This approach was used in the 1995 national oil and gas assessment because ultimate field size and EUR data were unavailable in the Appalachian region from Petroleum Information, Inc., and other commercial sources.

\n

In 2006 and 2007, the greenline Appalachian basin field maps were digitized under the supervision of Scott Kinney and converted to geographic information system (GIS) files for chapter I.1 (this volume). By converting these oil and gas field maps to a digital format and maintaining the field names where noted, they are now available for a variety of oil and gas and possibly carbon-dioxide sequestration projects. Having historical names assigned to known digitized conventional fields provides a convenient classification scheme into which cumulative production and ultimate field-size databases can be organized. Moreover, as exploratory and development drilling expands across the basin, many previously named fields that were originally treated as conventional fields have evolved into large, commonly unnamed continuous-type accumulations. These new digital maps will facilitate a comparison between EUR values from recently drilled, unnamed parts of continuous accumulations and EUR values from named fields discovered early during the exploration cycle of continuous accumulations.

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The maps contained in this chapter show the locations of coal fields, coal beds assessed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in 2000, and coalbed-methane fields in the central and southern Appalachian basin study areas, which include the coal-producing parts of the Black Warrior basin. The maps were compiled and modified from a variety of sources such as Tully (1996), Northern and Central Appalachian Basin Coal Regions Assessment Team (2001), Hatch and others (2003), Milici (2004), and unpublished data from the State geological surveys of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, and Alabama. The terms “coalbed methane” and “coal-bed gas” are used interchangeably in this report. All of the figures are located at the end of this report.

\n

The Appalachian basin historically has been subdivided into three coal regions on the basis of regional geologic structure and stratigraphy: the northern region in western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, western Maryland, and northern West Virginia; the central region in west-central and southwestern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, northern Tennessee, and southwestern Virginia; and the southern region in southern Tennessee, northern Alabama, and northwestern Georgia. The Appalachian basin is one of the most important coal-producing regions in the Nation and the world, and coal has been mined there throughout the last three centuries. The coal is primarily used within the Eastern United States for electrical power generation, but some of it is suitable for metallurgical uses. In 2008, the Appalachian basin produced about 320 million short tons of coal from 1,278 underground and surface coal mines (Energy Information Agency, 2009a).

\n

Coalbed-methane production in the Appalachian basin coal regions is an increasingly important resource. In 2008, 247 billion cubic feet (bcf) of coalbed methane was produced in the basin from Alabama (107 bcf), Virginia (101 bcf), West Virginia (28 bcf), and Pennsylvania (11 bcf) (Energy Information Agency, 2009b). Coalbed-methane exploration is ongoing in all of the States in the Appalachian basin coal regions, and production is expected to increase.

\n

The study area for most reports in this volume is the Appalachian basin. The term “Appalachian basin study area” (shortened from “Appalachian basin geologic framework study area”) includes all of the Appalachian Basin Province (Province 67) and part of the neighboring Black Warrior Basin Province (Province 65) of Dolton and others (1995). The boundaries for these two provinces and the study area are shown on figure 1.

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The most recent U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources of the Appalachian basin was completed in 2002 (Milici and others, 2003). This assessment was based on the total petroleum system (TPS), a concept introduced by Magoon and Dow (1994) and developed during subsequent studies such as those by the U.S. Geological Survey World Energy Assessment Team (2000) and by Biteau and others (2003a,b). Each TPS is based on specific geologic elements that include source rocks, traps and seals, reservoir rocks, and the generation and migration of hydrocarbons. This chapter identifies the TPSs defined in the 2002 Appalachian basin oil and gas assessment and places them in the context of the stratigraphic framework associated with regional geologic cross sections D–D′ (Ryder and others, 2009, which was re-released in this volume, chap. E.4.1) and E–E′ (Ryder and others, 2008, which was re-released in this volume, chap. E.4.2). Furthermore, the chapter presents a recent estimate of the ultimate recoverable oil and natural gas in the basin.

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This chapter B.1 of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Professional Paper 1708 provides index maps for many of the studies described in other chapters of the report. Scientists of the USGS and State geological surveys studied coal and petroleum resources in the central and southern Appalachian structural basins. In the southern Appalachian basin, studies focused on the coal-bearing parts of the Black Warrior basin in Alabama. The scientists used new and existing geologic data sets to create a common spatial geologic framework for the fossil-fuel-bearing strata of the central Appalachian basin and the Black Warrior basin in Alabama.

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Digital data have been compiled into a geographic information system (GIS) that is included in chapter I.1 (Trippi and others, this volume). Shape files and related metadata for features shown in the index maps of this chapter can be downloaded from chapter I.1.

\n

The study area for the Appalachian basin resource framework study includes the fossil-fuel-bearing strata of the following States (listed alphabetically): Alabama, Kentucky, Maryland, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. The outline of the study area is shown in figure 1; it differs from the boundary of the Appalachian Basin Province (Province 67) defined for the 1995 National Oil and Gas Assessment (NOGA) by the U.S. Geological Survey (1996a). The difference is that the study area includes regions where the Pennsylvanian coal-bearing strata crop out but does not include all of the oil- and gas-bearing strata of the Black Warrior basin, Alabama.

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The reasons for providing the index maps in this chapter are to show the locations of different studies, to give an overview of topics covered, and to help the user choose which chapter to read. Figures 1 and 2 show the study area outline and county names. Figure 3 shows oil and gas production in 1995 and 2005. Figure 4 shows locations of Upper Devonian sandstone oil and gas fields. Figure 5 shows major coal regions and coal fields. Figure 6 shows coal production by county.

\n

Figure 7 shows the locations of 10 cross sections of regional extent through the subsurface of the Appalachian basin. Figure 8 shows conodont alteration index sample locations and interpreted isograds for Ordovician rocks.

\n

Figure 9 shows vitrinite-reflectance data for Pennsylvanian coal in the Appalachian basin. Figure 10 shows the locations of coalbed-methane (CBM) assessment units in the study area, and figure 12 shows counties producing CBM. Figure 12 shows sulfur content of coal delivered to powerplants from coal-producing counties in the Appalachian basin and Black Warrior basin.

\n

Figure 13 shows locations of wells in Ohio and Pennsylvania where oil and gas were sampled in Lower Silurian reservoirs. Figure 14 shows the Conasauga-Rome/Conasauga Total Petroleum System and selected wells in the Rome trough in Kentucky and West Virginia having oil and gas production and shows. Figure 15 shows the locations of samples from Silurian reservoirs in Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia; the samples yielded total organic carbon data. Figure 16 shows the locations of the Ben Hur and Rose Hill oil fields, Virginia, and the Swan Creek oil field, Tennessee.

\n

The one index map that is not shown is the areal extent of the shale gas plays in the basin. The extents of the plays can be found in Coleman and others (this volume, chap. G.13).

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Fossil fuels from the Appalachian basin region have been major contributors to the Nation’s energy needs over much of the last three centuries. Early records indicate that Appalachian coal was first mined in the middle 1700s (Virginia and Pennsylvania) and was used sparingly to fuel colonial settlements and, later, a fledgling industrial-based economy along the eastern seaboard of the United States (de Witt and Milici, 1989). In 2011, central Appalachian basin coal production accounted for approximately 77 percent of all U.S. metallurgical (or coking) coal and 29 percent of total U.S. production (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2013). Following initial discoveries and commercial use in western New York (1821) and Ohio and West Virginia (mid-1830s), the Appalachian petroleum (oil and gas) industry began in earnest in 1859 with the discovery of oil at the Drake well in northwestern Pennsylvania. Between 1860 and 1989, the Appalachian basin produced more than 2.5 billion barrels of oil (BBO) and more than 30 trillion cubic feet of gas (TCFG) from more than 500,000 wells (de Witt and Milici, 1989). Although both oil and gas continue to be produced in the Appalachian basin, most new wells in the region are drilled in shale reservoirs to produce natural gas.

\n

Appalachian coal and petroleum resources are still available in sufficient quantities to contribute significantly to the Nation’s energy needs. For example, the U.S. Energy Information Administration (2010) estimated that there are 6,484 million short tons of recoverable coal reserves in the Appalachian basin. Similarly, about 14.7 billion barrels of oil equivalent (BBOE) (1.2 BBO+81 TCFG [or 13.5 BBOE]) of recoverable Appalachian basin oil and gas remain available of an estimated ultimate endowment of approximately 25.5 billion BBOE (cumulative production + reserves + estimated recoverable undiscovered resources) (this volume, chap. C.1).

\n

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Professional Paper 1708 is a modern, indepth collection of reports, cross sections, and maps that describe the geology of the Appalachian basin and its fossil fuel resources. Several of the chapters have been published in outside journals or as other USGS publications. Although this volume is not a comprehensive regional treatment of all notable geologic and fossil fuel localities in the Appalachian basin, the selected study areas and topics presented in the chapters cover large segments of the basin and a wide range of stratigraphic intervals. As the title implies, this volume addresses topics that refer to the locations of coal and petroleum accumulations, the stratigraphic and structural framework, and the geochemical characteristics of the coal beds and petroleum in the basin, as well as the results and documentation of recent USGS assessments of coal, oil, and gas resources in the basin.

\n

Many of the maps and accompanying data supporting the reports in this volume are available as downloadable geographic information system (GIS) data files (such as selected coal beds, selected oil and gas fields, locations of oil and gas wells, coal production, coal chemistry, total petroleum system (TPS) boundaries, and bedrock geology). Log ASCII Standard (LAS) files for geophysical (gamma ray) wireline well logs also are included.

\n

This publication supplements and updates older USGS regional studies of Appalachian basin coal and petroleum resources such as those by Arndt and others (1968) and the numerous contributors to USGS Miscellaneous Map Series I−917 (for example, Harris and others, 1978), respectively. USGS Professional Paper 1708 is intended primarily for geoscientists in academia, industry, and government who are interested in Appalachian basin geology and its coal and petroleum resources. Other users, however, may find the wide variety of topics, papers, and digital images of value for landuse and policy planning issues. Among the anticipated benefits of the report are improvements in (1) resource assessment estimates and methodology, (2) exploration strategies, (3) basin models, and (4) energy use policies.

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Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1708","title":"Coal and petroleum resources in the Appalachian basin: distribution, geologic framework, and geochemical character","docAbstract":"

Fossil fuels from the Appalachian basin region have been major contributors to the Nation’s energy supplies over much of the last three centuries. Appalachian coal and petroleum resources are still available in sufficient quantities to contribute significantly to fulfilling the Nation’s energy needs. Although both conventional oil and gas continue to be produced in the Appalachian basin, most new wells in the region are drilled in shale reservoirs to produce natural gas.

\n

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Professional Paper 1708 is a modern, indepth collection of reports, cross sections, and maps that describe the geology of the Appalachian basin and its fossil fuel resources. This publication supplements and updates older USGS regional studies of Appalachian basin coal and petroleum resources. Some chapters are new, and several have been published in outside journals or as other USGS publications. Although this volume is not a comprehensive regional treatment of all notable geologic and fossil fuel localities in the Appalachian basin, the selected study areas and topics presented in the chapters pertain to large segments of the basin and a wide range of stratigraphic intervals. This volume discusses the locations of coal and petroleum accumulations, the stratigraphic and structural framework, and the geochemical characteristics of the coal beds and petroleum in the basin, as well as the results of recent USGS assessments of coal, oil, and gas resources in the basin.

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Many of the maps and accompanying data supporting the reports in this volume are available from chapter I.1 as downloadable geographic information system (GIS) data files about the characteristics of selected coal beds and oil and gas fields, locations of oil and gas wells, coal production, coal chemistry, total petroleum system (TPS) boundaries, and bedrock geology. Log ASCII Standard (LAS) files for geophysical (gamma ray) wireline well logs are included in other chapters.

\n

Professional Paper 1708 is intended primarily for geoscientists in academia, industry, and government who are interested in Appalachian basin geology and its coal and petroleum resources. Other users, however, may find the topics, papers, and digital images valuable for land-use and policy planning. Among the anticipated benefits of the report are improvements in (1) resource assessment estimates and methodology, (2) exploration strategies, (3) basin models, and (4) energy use policies.

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The distribution of foraminifera in most of San Francisco Bay is well documented, but this is not the case for the subembayment known as Central Bay. To resolve this, 55 grab samples obtained in 1998 were analyzed to characterize the foraminiferal fauna in the surface sediments of the area. Thirty-five species were identified, including the invasive Japanese species Trochammina hadai that was introduced into the bay in the early 1980s. A cluster analysis of the samples from Central Bay produced three groups (biofacies) and one outlier. The Shallow Subtidal Biofacies is characterized by a marsh to shallow-subtidal agglutinated fauna, dominated by T. hadai but also including T. inflata, T. macrescens, Haplophragmoides subinvolutum, and Miliammina fusca. The Intermediate Subtidal Biofacies, the Intermediate Subtidal Outlier, and the Deep Subtidal Biofacies are dominated by calcareous taxa, most notably Ammonia tepida, Elphidium excavatum, and Elphidiella hannai. Ammonia tepida is most abundant in the warmer, intermediate depths of eastern Central Bay, abundances of E. excavatum peak in the cooler estuarine water near Alcatraz Island, and E. hannai thrives in the cold water west of Angel Island in a transitional setting between the deep subtidal estuarine and the nearshore marine environments. The recovery of oceanic species as far east as Angel Island indicate that western Central Bay is the most marine-influenced region of San Francisco Bay.

\n

Samples collected from 1965 onward were also compared with those from 1998 to investigate how the distribution of benthic foraminifera in Central Bay has changed over the latter half of the 20th Century, particularly in response to the invasion by Trochammina hadai. In 1998, T. hadai was recovered at 46 of 55 sites in Central Bay, comprising from 0.3 to 97% (mean = 23%) of the foraminiferal fauna. With the species’ affiliation for shallow environments, it is not unexpected that it dominated the fauna of the Shallow Subtidal Biofacies (68-97%, mean = 77%) and was also a significant component of the Intermediate Subtidal Biofacies (7-51%, averaging 28%). In the deeper waters west of Alcatraz Island, the abundance of T. hadai was significantly less (mean = 8%), most likely reflecting allochthonous specimens that were the result of post-mortem transport. A cluster analysis clearly distinguishes pre- and post-invasion biofacies, illustrating how dominant T. hadai has become in Central Bay.

","language":"English","publisher":"MicroPress","publisherLocation":"New York, NY","usgsCitation":"McGann, M., 2014, Late 20th Century benthic foraminiferal distribution in Central San Francisco Bay, California: Influence of the Trochammina hadai invasion: Micropaleontology, v. 60, no. 6, p. 519-542.","productDescription":"24 p.","startPage":"519","endPage":"542","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-018614","costCenters":[{"id":520,"text":"Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":308657,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":308501,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.micropress.org/microaccess/micropaleontology/issue-313/article-1904","text":"Index Page","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"Index Page"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","otherGeospatial":"San Francisco Bay","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -123.18969726562499,\n 37.16031654673677\n ],\n [\n -121.56372070312499,\n 37.16031654673677\n ],\n [\n -121.56372070312499,\n 38.28993659801203\n ],\n [\n -123.18969726562499,\n 38.28993659801203\n ],\n [\n -123.18969726562499,\n 37.16031654673677\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"60","issue":"6","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":14,"text":"Menlo Park PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"560a64d5e4b058f706e536d4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"McGann, Mary L. 0000-0002-3057-2945 mmcgann@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3057-2945","contributorId":147188,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McGann","given":"Mary L.","email":"mmcgann@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":520,"text":"Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":573273,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70133424,"text":"cir1357 - 2014 - The quality of our Nation's waters: Water quality in the Denver Basin aquifer system, Colorado, 2003-05","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2026-04-29T16:49:08.19336","indexId":"cir1357","displayToPublicDate":"2015-01-21T12:00:00","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1357","title":"The quality of our Nation's waters: Water quality in the Denver Basin aquifer system, Colorado, 2003-05","docAbstract":"

Availability and sustainability of groundwater in the Denver Basin aquifer system depend on water quantity and water quality. The Denver Basin aquifer system underlies about 7,000 square miles of the Great Plains in eastern Colorado and is the primary or sole source of water for domestic and public supply in many areas of the basin. Use of groundwater from the Denver Basin sandstone aquifers has been instrumental for development of the south Denver metropolitan area and other areas, but has resulted in a decline in water levels in some parts of the system. Human activities in many areas have adversely affected the quality of water in the aquifer system, especially the shallow parts. Groundwater in deeper parts of the system used for drinking water, once considered isolated from the effects of overlying land use, is increasingly vulnerable to contamination from human activities and geologic materials. Availability and sustainability of high-quality groundwater are vital to the economic health of the Denver Basin area.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/cir1357","usgsCitation":"Bauch, N.J., Musgrove, M., Mahler, B., and Paschke, S.S., 2014, The quality of our Nation's waters: Water quality in the Denver Basin aquifer system, Colorado, 2003-05: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1357, Report: vii, 100 p.; Appendix 2, https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1357.","productDescription":"Report: vii, 100 p.; Appendix","numberOfPages":"113","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","temporalStart":"2003-01-01","temporalEnd":"2005-12-31","ipdsId":"IP-056275","costCenters":[{"id":451,"text":"National Water Quality Assessment Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":297418,"rank":1,"type":{"id":3,"text":"Appendix"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1357/appendix/circ1357appendix2.xlsx","text":"Appendix 2","size":"548 KB","linkFileType":{"id":3,"text":"xlsx"},"description":"Appendix 2","linkHelpText":"Table A2–1. Water-quality properties and constituents analyzed. Table A2–2. 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A prospectivity map for rare earth element (REE) mineralization at the Bokan Mountain peralkaline granite complex, Prince of Wales Island, southeastern Alaska, was calculated from high-resolution airborne gamma-ray data. The map displays areas with similar radioelement concentrations as those over the Dotson REE-vein-dike system, which is characterized by moderately high %K, eU, and eTh (%K, percent potassium; eU, equivalent parts per million uranium; and eTh, equivalent parts per million thorium). Gamma-ray concentrations of rocks that share a similar range as those over the Dotson zone are inferred to locate high concentrations of REE-bearing minerals. An approximately 1300-m-long prospective tract corresponds to shallowly exposed locations of the Dotson zone. Prospective areas of REE mineralization also occur in continuous swaths along the outer edge of the pluton, over known but undeveloped REE occurrences, and within discrete regions in the older Paleozoic country rocks. Detailed mineralogical examinations of samples from the Dotson zone provide a means to understand the possible causes of the airborne Th and U anomalies and their relation to REE minerals. Thorium is sited primarily in thorite. Uranium also occurs in thorite and in a complex suite of ±Ti±Nb±Y oxide minerals, which include fergusonite, polycrase, and aeschynite. These oxides, along with Y-silicates, are the chief heavy REE (HREE)-bearing minerals. Hence, the eU anomalies, in particular, may indicate other occurrences of similar HREE-enrichment. Uranium and Th chemistry along the Dotson zone showed elevated U and total REEs east of the Camp Creek fault, which suggested the potential for increased HREEs based on their association with U-oxide minerals. A uranium prospectivity map, based on signatures present over the Ross-Adams mine area, was characterized by extremely high radioelement values. Known uranium deposits were identified in the U-prospectivity map, but the largest tract occurs over a radioelement-rich granite phase within the pluton that is likely not related to mineralization. Neither mineralization type displays a well-defined airborne magnetic signature.

","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geophysicists","doi":"10.1190/INT-2014-0010.1","usgsCitation":"McCafferty, A.E., Stoeser, D.B., and Van Gosen, B.S., 2014, Geophysical interpretation of U, Th, and rare earth element mineralization of the Bokan Mountain peralkaline granite complex, Prince of Wales Island, southeast Alaska: Interpretation, v. 2, no. 4, p. SJ47-SJ63, https://doi.org/10.1190/INT-2014-0010.1.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"SJ47","endPage":"SJ63","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-053884","costCenters":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":318426,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Prince of Wales Island","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -133.17626953125,\n 56.3774187738762\n ],\n [\n -132.26440429687497,\n 55.64659898563683\n ],\n [\n -131.912841796875,\n 55.26659815231191\n ],\n [\n -131.934814453125,\n 54.67383096593114\n ],\n [\n -132.78076171875,\n 54.629338216555766\n ],\n [\n -133.330078125,\n 54.93345430690937\n ],\n [\n -133.912353515625,\n 55.45394132943305\n ],\n [\n -134.05517578125,\n 55.91842985630817\n ],\n [\n -133.681640625,\n 56.39566444471659\n ],\n [\n -133.17626953125,\n 56.3774187738762\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"2","issue":"4","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":2,"text":"Denver PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"56d579cce4b015c306f1fc46","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"McCafferty, Anne E. 0000-0001-5574-9201 anne@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5574-9201","contributorId":1120,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McCafferty","given":"Anne","email":"anne@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":35995,"text":"Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":621446,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Stoeser, Douglas B. dstoeser@usgs.gov","contributorId":1821,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Stoeser","given":"Douglas","email":"dstoeser@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":621447,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Van Gosen, Bradley S. 0000-0003-4214-3811 bvangose@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4214-3811","contributorId":1174,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Van Gosen","given":"Bradley","email":"bvangose@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":387,"text":"Mineral Resources Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":621448,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70173734,"text":"70173734 - 2014 - Space use and resource selection by foraging Indiana bats at the northern edge of their distribution","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-06-09T14:59:50","indexId":"70173734","displayToPublicDate":"2015-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1497,"text":"Endangered Species Research","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Space use and resource selection by foraging Indiana bats at the northern edge of their distribution","docAbstract":"

Despite 4 decades of conservation concern, managing endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) populations remains a difficult wildlife resource issue facing natural resource managers in the eastern United States. After small signs of population recovery, the recent emergence of white-nose syndrome has led to concerns of local and/or regional extirpation of the species. Where Indiana bats persist, retaining high-quality foraging areas will be critical to meet physiological needs and ensure successful recruitment and overwinter survival. However, insight into foraging behavior has been lacking in the Northeast of the USA. We radio-tracked 12 Indiana bats over 2 summers at Fort Drum, New York, to evaluate factors influencing Indiana bat resource selection during night-time foraging. We found that foraging space use decreased 2% for every 100 m increase in distance to water and 6% for every 100 m away from the forest edge. This suggests high use of riparian areas in close proximity to forest and is somewhat consistent with the species’ foraging ecology in the Midwest and upper South. Given the importance of providing access to high-quality foraging areas during the summer maternity season, Indiana bat conservation at the northern extent of the species’ range will be linked to retention of forested habitat in close proximity to riparian zones. 

","language":"English","publisher":"Inter-Research","doi":"10.3354/esr00594","usgsCitation":"Jachowski, D.S., Johnson, J.B., Dobony, C.A., Edwards, J.W., and Ford, W.M., 2014, Space use and resource selection by foraging Indiana bats at the northern edge of their distribution: Endangered Species Research, v. 24, no. 2, p. 149-157, https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00594.","productDescription":"9 p.","startPage":"149","endPage":"157","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-053072","costCenters":[{"id":199,"text":"Coop Res Unit Leetown","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":472550,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00594","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":323407,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"24","issue":"2","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":9,"text":"Reston PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"575a9336e4b04f417c275185","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Jachowski, David S.","contributorId":82966,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jachowski","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638282,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Johnson, Joshua B.","contributorId":171598,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Johnson","given":"Joshua","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638283,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Dobony, Christopher A.","contributorId":171455,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Dobony","given":"Christopher","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638284,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Edwards, John W.","contributorId":169827,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Edwards","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638285,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Ford, W. Mark wford@usgs.gov","contributorId":3858,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ford","given":"W.","email":"wford@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Mark","affiliations":[{"id":199,"text":"Coop Res Unit Leetown","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":638026,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":70173735,"text":"70173735 - 2014 - Developing a topographic model to predict the northern hardwood forest type within Carolina northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) recovery areas of the southern Appalachians","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-07-18T21:42:18","indexId":"70173735","displayToPublicDate":"2015-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2043,"text":"International Journal of Forestry Research","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Developing a topographic model to predict the northern hardwood forest type within Carolina northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) recovery areas of the southern Appalachians","docAbstract":"

The northern hardwood forest type is an important habitat component for the endangered Carolina northern flying squirrel (CNFS; Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) for den sites and corridor habitats between boreo-montane conifer patches foraging areas. Our study related terrain data to presence of northern hardwood forest type in the recovery areas of CNFS in the southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and southwestern Virginia. We recorded overstory species composition and terrain variables at 338 points, to construct a robust, spatially predictive model. Terrain variables analyzed included elevation, aspect, slope gradient, site curvature, and topographic exposure. We used an information-theoretic approach to assess seven models based on associations noted in existing literature as well as an inclusive global model. Our results indicate that, on a regional scale, elevation, aspect, and topographic exposure index (TEI) are significant predictors of the presence of the northern hardwood forest type in the southern Appalachians. Our elevation + TEI model was the best approximating model (the lowest AICc score) for predicting northern hardwood forest type correctly classifying approximately 78% of our sample points. We then used these data to create region-wide predictive maps of the distribution of the northern hardwood forest type within CNFS recovery areas.

","language":"English","publisher":"Hindawi Publishing Corporation","doi":"10.1155/2014/179415","usgsCitation":"Evans, A., Odom, R.H., Resler, L.M., Ford, W.M., and Prisley, S., 2014, Developing a topographic model to predict the northern hardwood forest type within Carolina northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) recovery areas of the southern Appalachians: International Journal of Forestry Research, v. 2014, Article 179415; 11 p., https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/179415.","productDescription":"Article 179415; 11 p.","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-056035","costCenters":[{"id":199,"text":"Coop Res Unit Leetown","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":472544,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/179415","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":323403,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -84.166259765625,\n 35.23664622093195\n ],\n [\n -84.1607666015625,\n 34.9805024453652\n ],\n [\n -83.0950927734375,\n 34.99850370014629\n ],\n [\n -82.28759765625,\n 35.523285179107816\n ],\n [\n -81.49108886718749,\n 36.25313319699069\n ],\n [\n -81.331787109375,\n 36.712467243386264\n ],\n [\n -81.617431640625,\n 36.760891249565624\n ],\n [\n -82.1173095703125,\n 36.19109202182454\n ],\n [\n -84.078369140625,\n 35.4159149234562\n ],\n [\n -84.166259765625,\n 35.23664622093195\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"2014","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":9,"text":"Reston PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"575a9330e4b04f417c275133","chorus":{"doi":"10.1155/2014/179415","url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/179415","publisher":"Hindawi Publishing Corporation","authors":"Evans Andrew, Odom Richard, Resler Lynn, Ford W. Mark, Prisley Steve","journalName":"International Journal of Forestry Research","publicationDate":"2014","auditedOn":"11/17/2014","publiclyAccessibleDate":"1/1/2014"},"contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Evans, Andrew","contributorId":171675,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Evans","given":"Andrew","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638272,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Odom, Richard H.","contributorId":171659,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Odom","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638273,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Resler, Lynn M.","contributorId":74215,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Resler","given":"Lynn","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638274,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Ford, W. Mark wford@usgs.gov","contributorId":3858,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ford","given":"W.","email":"wford@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Mark","affiliations":[{"id":199,"text":"Coop Res Unit Leetown","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":638027,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Prisley, Stephen","contributorId":26272,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Prisley","given":"Stephen","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":638275,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":70157069,"text":"70157069 - 2014 - Sources and sinks of carbon in boreal ecosystems of interior Alaska: a review","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2015-09-16T09:18:05","indexId":"70157069","displayToPublicDate":"2015-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3888,"text":"Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Sources and sinks of carbon in boreal ecosystems of interior Alaska: a review","docAbstract":"

Boreal regions store large quantities of carbon but are increasingly vulnerable to carbon loss due to disturbance and climate warming. The boreal region, underlain by discontinuous permafrost, presents a challenging landscape for itemizing current and potential carbon sources and sinks in the boreal soil and vegetation. The roles of fire, forest succession, and the presence (or absence) of permafrost on carbon cycle, vegetation, and hydrologic processes have been the focus of multidisciplinary research in this area for the past 20 years. However, projections of a warming future climate, an increase in fire severity and extent, and the potential degradation of permafrost could lead to major landscape process changes over the next 20 to 50 years. This provides a major challenge for predicting how the interplay between land management activities and impacts of climate warming will affect carbon sources and sinks in Interior Alaska. To assist land managers in adapting and managing for potential changes in the Interior Alaska carbon cycle we developed this review paper incorporating an overview of the climate, ecosystem processes, vegetation types, and soil regimes in Interior Alaska with a focus on ramifications for the carbon cycle. Our objective is to provide a synthesis of the most current carbon storage estimates and measurements to support policy and land management decisions on how to best manage carbon sources and sinks in Interior Alaska. To support this we have surveyed relevant peer reviewed estimates of carbon stocks in aboveground and belowground biomass for Interior Alaska boreal ecosystems. We have also summarized methane and carbon dioxide fluxes from the same ecosystems. These data have been converted into the same units to facilitate comparison across ecosystem compartments. We identify potential changes in the carbon cycle with climate change and human disturbance including how compounding disturbances can affect the boreal system. Finally, we provide recommendations to address the challenges facing land managers in efforts to manage carbon cycle processes. The results of this study can be used for carbon cycle management in other locations within the boreal biome which encompass a broad distribution from 45° to 83° north.

","language":"English","publisher":"BioOne","doi":"10.12952/journal.elementa.000032","usgsCitation":"Douglas, T.A., Jones, M.C., and Hiemstra, C.A., 2014, Sources and sinks of carbon in boreal ecosystems of interior Alaska: a review: Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, v. 2, 39 p., https://doi.org/10.12952/journal.elementa.000032.","productDescription":"39 p.","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-059810","costCenters":[{"id":243,"text":"Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":472532,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.12952/journal.elementa.000032","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":308150,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -149.94140625,\n 63.28800124531419\n ],\n [\n -149.94140625,\n 64.9188850328549\n ],\n [\n -144.393310546875,\n 64.9188850328549\n ],\n [\n -144.393310546875,\n 63.28800124531419\n ],\n [\n -149.94140625,\n 63.28800124531419\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"2","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":9,"text":"Reston PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2014-12-12","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"55fa92d4e4b05d6c4e501ad3","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Douglas, Thomas A. 0000-0003-1314-1905","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1314-1905","contributorId":64553,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Douglas","given":"Thomas","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":33087,"text":"Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":true,"id":571481,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jones, Miriam C. 0000-0002-6650-7619 miriamjones@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6650-7619","contributorId":4056,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jones","given":"Miriam","email":"miriamjones@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[{"id":243,"text":"Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":571480,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Hiemstra, Christopher A.","contributorId":147379,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Hiemstra","given":"Christopher","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":12537,"text":"USACE","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":571482,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70160928,"text":"70160928 - 2014 - Geophysical framework of the Peninsular Ranges batholith—Implications for tectonic evolution and neotectonics","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-01-05T10:01:27","indexId":"70160928","displayToPublicDate":"2015-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1726,"text":"GSA Memoirs","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Geophysical framework of the Peninsular Ranges batholith—Implications for tectonic evolution and neotectonics","docAbstract":"

The crustal structure of the Peninsular Ranges batholith can be divided geophysically into two parts: (1) a western mafic part that is dense, magnetic, and characterized by relatively high seismic velocities (>6.25 km/s), low heat flow (<60 mW/m2), and relatively sparse seismicity, and (2) an eastern, more felsic part that is less dense, weakly magnetic, and characterized by lower seismic velocities (<6.25 km/s), high heat flow (>60 mW/m2), and abundant microseismicity. Potential-field modeling indicates that the dense, mafic part of the batholith extends to depths of at least 20 km and likely to the Moho. The magnetic anomalies of the western part of the batholith extend south beyond the spatially extensive exposures of the batholith to the tip of the Baja California peninsula, which suggests that the mafic part of the batholith projects beneath Cenozoic volcanic cover another 400 km. The linearity and undisrupted nature of the magnetic belt of anomalies suggest that the western part of the batholith has behaved as a rigid block since emplacement of the batholith. The batholith may have influenced not only the development of the Gulf of California oblique rift, but also strike-slip faulting along its northern margin, and transtensional faulting along its western margin, likely because it is thermally and mechanically more resistant to deformation than the surrounding crust.

","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/2014.1211(01)","usgsCitation":"Langenheim, V., Jachens, R.C., and Aiken, C., 2014, Geophysical framework of the Peninsular Ranges batholith—Implications for tectonic evolution and neotectonics: GSA Memoirs, v. 211, p. 1-20, https://doi.org/10.1130/2014.1211(01).","productDescription":"20 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"20","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-033143","costCenters":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":313326,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Mexico, United States","state":"California","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -108.7646484375,\n 23.241346102386135\n ],\n [\n -110.1708984375,\n 22.187404991398775\n ],\n [\n -124.8046875,\n 38.92522904714054\n ],\n [\n -121.46484375,\n 40.07807142745009\n ],\n [\n -114.08203125,\n 31.42866311735861\n ],\n [\n -108.7646484375,\n 23.241346102386135\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"211","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":14,"text":"Menlo Park PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"568cf743e4b0e7a44bc0f160","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Langenheim, Victoria E. 0000-0003-2170-5213 zulanger@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2170-5213","contributorId":151042,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Langenheim","given":"Victoria E.","email":"zulanger@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":584245,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jachens, Robert C. jachens@usgs.gov","contributorId":1180,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jachens","given":"Robert","email":"jachens@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":584244,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Aiken, Carlos","contributorId":151070,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Aiken","given":"Carlos","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":590,"text":"U.S. Army Corps of Engineers","active":false,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":584246,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":11}]}} ,{"id":70133621,"text":"pp18016 - 2014 - Petrologic insights into basaltic volcanism at historically active Hawaiian volcanoes","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":70133621,"text":"pp18016 - 2014 - Petrologic insights into basaltic volcanism at historically active Hawaiian volcanoes","indexId":"pp18016","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"chapter":"6","title":"Petrologic insights into basaltic volcanism at historically active Hawaiian volcanoes"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70128419,"text":"pp1801 - 2014 - Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes","indexId":"pp1801","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"title":"Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70128419,"text":"pp1801 - 2014 - Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes","indexId":"pp1801","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"title":"Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes"},"lastModifiedDate":"2020-07-01T19:04:46.140914","indexId":"pp18016","displayToPublicDate":"2015-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2014","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1801","chapter":"6","title":"Petrologic insights into basaltic volcanism at historically active Hawaiian volcanoes","docAbstract":"

Study of the petrology of Hawaiian volcanoes, in particular the historically active volcanoes on the Island of Hawai‘i, has long been of worldwide scientific interest. When Dr. Thomas A. Jaggar, Jr., established the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) in 1912, detailed observations on basaltic activity at Kīlauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes increased dramatically. The period from 1912 to 1958 saw a gradual increase in the collection and analysis of samples from the historical eruptions of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa and development of the concepts needed to evaluate them. In a classic 1955 paper, Howard Powers introduced the concepts of magnesia variation diagrams, to display basaltic compositions, and olivine-control lines, to distinguish between possibly comagmatic and clearly distinct basaltic lineages. In particular, he and others recognized that Kīlauea and Mauna Loa basalts must have different sources.

\n

Subsequent years saw a great increase in petrologic data, as the development of the electron microprobe made it possible to routinely monitor glass and mineral compositions, in addition to bulk rock compositions. We now have 100 years’ worth of glass compositions for Kīlauea summit eruptions, which, together with expanding databases on prehistoric tephras, provide important constraints on the nature of Kīlauea’s summit reservoir. A series of chemically distinctive eruptions in the 1950s and 1960s facilitated evaluation of magma mixing and transport processes at Kīlauea. At Mauna Loa, lava compositions are distinctive only at the trace element level, suggesting that its summit reservoir is better mixed than Kīlauea’s. Most summit lavas at both volcanoes, however, lie on olivine control lines having the same olivine composition (Fo86–87). Study of the ongoing East Rift Zone eruption at Kīlauea has further illuminated the complexity of magma storage, resupply, and mixing along this very active rift zone.

\n

Studies of active and closed-system lava lakes have been part of HVO’s efforts since Jaggar’s unique descriptions of the Halema‘uma‘u lava lake that existed before 1924. Detailed study of closed-system bodies, including the 1959 Kīlauea Iki, 1963 ‘Alae, and 1965 and prehistoric Makaopuhi lava lakes and the Uēkahuna laccolith, have allowed recognition and quantification of processes of basalt differentiation. Specific topics reviewed herein include the occurrence of segregation veins and related structures, overall cooling history, and patterns of crystallization and reequilibration of olivine in various lava lakes.

\n

In recent decades, study of the submarine slopes of the Island of Hawai‘i and of Lō‘ihi Seamount has revolutionized our understanding of the early history of Hawaiian volcanoes. Observations of Lō‘ihi lavas first established the existence of an early alkalic stage in the evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes. Stages of volcanic development from inception to tholeiitic shield building can be observed in Kīlauea’s submarine and subaerial sections. One distinctive feature of submarine volcanics at Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualālai is that picritic lavas are more abundant than in subaerial eruptions. Also, olivine compositions of submarine lavas are more magnesian, ranging from Fo88 at Kīlauea to Fo89 at Hualālai. The most magnesian glasses known from Kīlauea (MgO=14.7–15.0 weight percent) were found along the submarine part of Kīlauea’s East Rift Zone.

\n

Contributions to our knowledge of the nature of the mantle source(s) of Hawaiian basalts are reviewed briefly, although this is a topic where debate is ongoing. Finally, our accumulated petrologic observations impose constraints on the nature of the summit reservoirs at Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, specifically whether the summit chamber has been continuous or segmented during past decades.

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The first volcanic gas studies in Hawai‘i, beginning in 1912, established that volatile emissions from Kīlauea Volcano contained mostly water vapor, in addition to carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. This straightforward discovery overturned a popular volatile theory of the day and, in the same action, helped affirm Thomas A. Jaggar, Jr.’s, vision of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) as a preeminent place to study volcanic processes. Decades later, the environmental movement produced a watershed of quantitative analytical tools that, after being tested at Kīlauea, became part of the regular monitoring effort at HVO. The resulting volatile emission and fumarole chemistry datasets are some of the most extensive on the planet. These data indicate that magma from the mantle enters the shallow magmatic system of Kīlauea sufficiently oversaturated in CO2 to produce turbulent flow. Passive degassing at Kīlauea’s summit that occurred from 1983 through 2007 yielded CO2-depleted, but SO2- and H2O-rich, rift eruptive gases. Beginning with the 2008 summit eruption, magma reaching the East Rift Zone eruption site became depleted of much of its volatile content at the summit eruptive vent before transport to Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. The volatile emissions of Hawaiian volcanoes are halogen-poor, relative to those of other basaltic systems. Information gained regarding intrinsic gas solubilities at Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, as well as the pressure-controlled nature of gas release, have provided useful tools for tracking eruptive activity. Regular CO2-emission-rate measurements at Kīlauea’s summit, together with surface-deformation and other data, detected an increase in deep magma supply more than a year before a corresponding surge in effusive activity. Correspondingly, HVO routinely uses SO2 emissions to study shallow eruptive processes and effusion rates. HVO gas studies and Kīlauea’s long-running East Rift Zone eruption also demonstrate that volatile emissions can be a substantial volcanic hazard in Hawai‘i. From its humble beginning, trying to determine the chemical composition of volcanic gases over a century ago, HVO has evolved to routinely use real-time gas chemistry to track eruptive processes, as well as hazards.

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