{"pageNumber":"15","pageRowStart":"350","pageSize":"25","recordCount":370,"records":[{"id":70011757,"text":"70011757 - 1981 - U-Pb isotope systematics and age of uranium mineralization, Midnite mine, Washington.","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":23767,"text":"ofr80236 - 1980 - Age of uranium mineralization, U-Pb isotope systematics, and ore mineralogy of the Midnite Mine, Washington","indexId":"ofr80236","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"title":"Age of uranium mineralization, U-Pb isotope systematics, and ore mineralogy of the Midnite Mine, Washington"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":70011757,"text":"70011757 - 1981 - U-Pb isotope systematics and age of uranium mineralization, Midnite mine, Washington.","indexId":"70011757","publicationYear":"1981","noYear":false,"title":"U-Pb isotope systematics and age of uranium mineralization, Midnite mine, Washington."},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-12-23T15:38:37.695623","indexId":"70011757","displayToPublicDate":"1981-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1981","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"U-Pb isotope systematics and age of uranium mineralization, Midnite mine, Washington.","docAbstract":"Uranium ores at the Midnite mine, near Spokane, Washington, occur in phyllites and calcsilicates of the Proterozoic Togo Formation, near the margins of an anomalously uraniferous, porphyritic quartz monzonite of Late Cretaceous age. The present geometry of the ore zones is tabular, with the thickest zones above depressions in the pluton-country rock contact. Analyses of high-grade ores from the mine define a <sup>207</sup> Pb/ <sup>204</sup> Pb- <sup>235</sup> U/ <sup>204</sup> Pb isochron indicating an age of mineralization of 51.0 + or - 0.5 m.y. This age coincides with a time of regional volcanic activity (Sanpoil Volcanics), shallow intrusive activity, erosion, and faulting. U-Th-Pb isotopic ages of zircons from the porphyritic quartz monzonite in the mine indicate an age of about 75 m.y., hence the present orebodies were formed about 24 m.y. after its intrusion. The 51-m.y. time of mineralization probably represents a period of mobilization and redeposition of uranium by supergene ground waters, perhaps aided by mild heating and ground preparation and preserved by a capping of newly accumulated, impermeable volcanic rocks. It seems most likely that the initial concentration of uranium occurred about 75 m.y. ago, probably from relatively mild hydrothermal fluids in the contact-metamorphic aureole of the U-rich porphyritic quartz monzonite.Pitchblende, coffinitc, pyrite, marcasite, and hisingerite are the most common minerals in the uranium-bearing veinlets, with minor sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Coffinitc with associated marcasite is paragenetically later than pitchblende, though textural and isotopic evidence suggests no large difference in the times of pitchblende and colfinite formation.The U-Pb isotope systematics of total ores and of pitchblende-coffinite and pyrite-marcasite separates show that whereas open system behavior for U and Pb is essentially negligible for large (200-500 g) ore samples, Pb migration has occurred on a scale of 1 to 10 mm (out of pitchblende and coffinite and into pyrite and marcasite). Also, long-term continuous leakage of radioactive daughters of <sup>238</sup> U (probably <sup>222</sup> Rn) has occurred on scales of from approximately 100 mu m approximately 10 cm. The isotopic composition of unsupported radiogenic Pb in pyrite-marcasite seems to depend on the mineralogical microenvironment of the grains, so that the radiogenic Pb in pyrite-marcasite intimately intermixed with pitchblende-coffinite tends to be deficient in <sup>206</sup> Pb, and the radiogenic Pb in pyrite-marcasite in gangue tends to have excess <sup>206</sup> Pb. These systematics probably reflect differences between the average distances of Pb and <sup>222</sup> Rn diffusion since the formation of the ores.","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.76.1.89","usgsCitation":"Ludwig, K., Nash, J., and Naeser, C.W., 1981, U-Pb isotope systematics and age of uranium mineralization, Midnite mine, Washington.: Economic Geology, v. 76, no. 1, p. 89-110, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.76.1.89.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"89","endPage":"110","costCenters":[{"id":218,"text":"Denver Federal Center","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":221312,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Washington","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -124.79,45.54 ], [ -124.79,49.0 ], [ -116.92,49.0 ], [ -116.92,45.54 ], [ -124.79,45.54 ] ] ] } } ] }","volume":"76","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1981-02-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505bb9cde4b08c986b327e05","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ludwig, K.R.","contributorId":97112,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ludwig","given":"K.R.","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":218,"text":"Denver Federal Center","active":false,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":361895,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Nash, J. T.","contributorId":31751,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nash","given":"J. T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":361894,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Naeser, C. W.","contributorId":17582,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Naeser","given":"C.","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":361893,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}}
,{"id":70011955,"text":"70011955 - 1981 - A lithologic-tectonic framework for the metallogenic provinces of California","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-01-12T17:14:32.541851","indexId":"70011955","displayToPublicDate":"1981-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1981","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"A lithologic-tectonic framework for the metallogenic provinces of California","docAbstract":"<p><span>The lithologic-tectonic framework of California developed principally during Mesozoic time when various terranes of oceanic crust and island-arc crust were accreted to older sialic crust, resulting in westward growth of the continent. Emplacement of great batholithic masses of granitoid rocks cutting all these crustal types also took place during the Mesozoic period. The discrete tectonostratigraphic terranes that resulted from these events and subsequent Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic events are characterized by specific types of metallic mineral deposits or, in some terranes, by the virtual absence of deposits. Lead-silver-zinc replacement-type deposits are common in the Paleozoic carbonate terrane in the eastern part of the state and occur sporadically elsewhere in the miogeoclinal and cratonal terranes but are absent from the oceanic and island-arc terranes. The vast majority of contact metasomatic tungsten deposits, including all the large ones, are in pendants of miogeoclinal rocks in the Sierra Nevada batholith, but the important Atolia deposits reside in granitoid rocks that invade oceanic terrane. Molybdenum distribution closely follows that of tungsten. All the large contact metasomatic iron deposits in California are in craton and miogeoclinal terranes, but sparse small deposits of this type also occur in island-arc terranes of the northern Sierra Nevada and eastern Klamath Mountains. Lode gold deposits, although widely scattered, show a marked preference for oceanic and island-arc terranes that have been invaded by granitoid plutons. All the major deposits, including late Tertiary bonanza deposits such as Bodie, are in such terranes. It appears that magmatic processes were responsible for mobilizing and transporting the gold, but the metal was perhaps derived from the eugeosynclinal rocks, notably the mafic volcanics. Most mercury deposits are found in the Coast Ranges, where they commonly occur in silica-carbonate rock, an alteration product of serpentinite. The deposits appear to be spatially related to the Coast Range thrust, and the source of the mercury may have been sedimentary rocks of the underlying Franciscan assemblage. Epigenetic mineralization occurred at several different times during the Mesozoic, and again during Miocene and Pliocene time. The timing of mineralization events and the distribution of various deposit types indicate that no broad-scale zoning of epigenetic deposits exists around the Sierra Nevada batholith.Syngenetic deposits are represented mainly by massive sulfides, chert-associated manganese, and chromite. The massive sulfide deposits, with one exception, are restricted to island-arc terranes, and nearly all of these deposits are in silicic volcanic rocks. They are interpreted to be syngenetic with the enclosing rocks, although some redistribution of metals may have occurred after the original deposition. The deposits occur in volcanic sequences of at least five different ages ranging from Early Devonian to Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous and, along with their enclosing rocks, were probably formed at some distance from their present sites. Chert-associated manganese deposits occur mainly in exotic blocks of oceanic crust in melange and probably formed in fairly deep ocean environments. Chromite is confined to ultramafic rock, much of which occupies suture zones separating various accreted terranes.</span></p>","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Economic Geology","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.76.4.765","issn":"03610128","usgsCitation":"Albers, J.P., 1981, A lithologic-tectonic framework for the metallogenic provinces of California: Economic Geology, v. 76, no. 4, p. 765-790, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.76.4.765.","productDescription":"26 p.","startPage":"765","endPage":"790","numberOfPages":"26","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":221328,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"76","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1981-07-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059e43de4b0c8380cd46507","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Albers, J. P.","contributorId":81505,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Albers","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":362382,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":5913,"text":"pp1164 - 1980 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":8650,"text":"ofr78473 - 1978 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming","indexId":"ofr78473","publicationYear":"1978","noYear":false,"title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":5913,"text":"pp1164 - 1980 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area","indexId":"pp1164","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:41","indexId":"pp1164","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1164","title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area","docAbstract":"Analyses of the surface effects of past underground coal mining in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area suggest that underground mining of strippable coal deposits may damage the environment more over long periods of time than would modern surface mining, provided proper restoration procedures are followed after surface mining. Subsidence depressions and pits are a continuing hazard to the environment and to man's activities in the Sheridan, Wyo., area above abandoned underground mines in weak overburden less than about 60 m thick and where the overburden is less than about 10-15 times the thickness of coal mined. In addition, fires commonly start by spontaneous ignition when water and air enter the abandoned mine workings via subsidence cracks and pits. The fires can then spread to unmined coal as they create more cavities, more subsidence, and more cracks and pits through which air can circulate. \r\n\r\nIn modern surface mining operations the total land surface underlain by minable coal is removed to expose the coal. The coal is removed, the overburden and topsoil are replaced, and the land is regraded and revegetated. The land, although disturbed, can be more easily restored and put back into use than can land underlain by abandoned underground mine workings in areas where the overburden is less than about 60 m thick or less than about 10-15 times the thickness of coal mined. The resource recovery of modern surface mining commonly is much greater than that of underground mining procedures. Although present-day underground mining technology is advanced as compared to that of 25-80 years ago, subsidence resulting from underground mining of thick coal beds beneath overburden less than about 60 m thick can still cause greater damage to surface drainage, ground water, and vegetation than can properly designed surface mining operations. \r\n\r\nThis report discusses (11 the geology and surface and underground effects of former large-scale underground coal mining in a 50-km 2 area 5-20 km north of Sheridan, Wyo., (2) a ground and aerial reconnaissance study of a 5-km^2 coal mining area 8-10 km west of Sheridan, and (31 some environmental consequences and problems caused by coal mining.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/pp1164","usgsCitation":"Dunrud, C., and Osterwald, F.W., 1980, Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1164, 49 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1164.","productDescription":"49 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":124834,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1164/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":32798,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1164/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a2fe4b07f02db615ca8","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Dunrud, C. Richard","contributorId":48964,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dunrud","given":"C. Richard","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151800,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Osterwald, Frank W.","contributorId":98301,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Osterwald","given":"Frank","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151801,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
,{"id":9821,"text":"ofr801153 - 1980 - A homogeneous stochastic model for earthquake occurrences","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-08-26T22:07:34.790663","indexId":"ofr801153","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"80-1153","title":"A homogeneous stochastic model for earthquake occurrences","docAbstract":"<p>The objective of this study is to develop a probabilistic model for earthquake occurrences with temporal and spatial memory. Stochastic processes are used to characterize both the spatial and temporal dependencies of seismic occurrences along a fault. Currently, only homogeneous space and time transitions are considered. The resulting process however is evolutionary and depends on the specific sequence of events over a period of time. The model provides estimates on the cumulative activity of a fault over a future time period. In addition, probabilities of occurrences of individual events along a geologic fault at some specified future time are obtained when a descritized time scale is used. The information from these evaluations is particularly useful in engineering seismic hazard computations and for social and engineering seismic risk assessments.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr801153","usgsCitation":"Kiremidjian, A.S., and Anagnos, T., 1980, A homogeneous stochastic model for earthquake occurrences: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 80-1153, v, 41 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr801153.","productDescription":"v, 41 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":405729,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1980/1153/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":142791,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1980/1153/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b24e4b07f02db6ae416","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kiremidjian, Anne S.","contributorId":60649,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kiremidjian","given":"Anne","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":160359,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Anagnos, Thalia","contributorId":66690,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Anagnos","given":"Thalia","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":160360,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
,{"id":5919,"text":"pp1126AJ - 1980 - Shorter contributions to stratigraphy and structural geology, 1979","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-11-18T19:41:27.730858","indexId":"pp1126AJ","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1126","chapter":"A-J","title":"Shorter contributions to stratigraphy and structural geology, 1979","docAbstract":"PART A: A system of anticlines lies along the trend of the sinuous course of the Colorado River for a distance of 97 km in the central Grand Canyon. Similar anticlines occur in some perennially wet side canyons. The anticlines are most abundant and well developed along northeast-trending reaches of the main canyon where it is floored by the Cambrian Muav Limestone. Dips of the folded strata are as great as 60?, and the folding locally extends more than 250 m from the river. Low-angle thrust faults in the limbs of the anticlines parallel the river and have formed in response to folding of the comparatively brittle carbonate strata. High-angle reverse kink bands, along which rocks are displaced up toward the river, also parallel the anticlines and have develop2d in response to the upward bulging of the canyon floor. \r\n\r\nThe river anticlines are an unloading phenomenon. They result from lateral squeezing toward the river of saturated shaly parts of the Muav Limestone and underlying Bright Angel Shale. The driving mechanism for the deformation is a stress gradient that results from a difference in lithostatic load between the heavily loaded rocks under the 650-m-high canyon walls and the unloaded canyon floor. Saturation appears to weaken the shaly rocks sufficiently to allow deformation to take place. River anticlines are not present in the eastern Grand Canyon, where the Cambrian rocks also occur at river level. Their absence is explained by a lack of shaly rocks that could flow when saturated. \r\n\r\nPART B:  The current interest in contemporary tectonic processes in the Eastern United States is turning up abundant evidence of crustal movements in late geologic time. Topographic analysis of the highland areas from the southern Blue Ridge to the Adirondack Mountains indicates that most of the landforms owe their origin to erosion of rocks of different resistance rather than to tectonic processes. Most areas of high relief and high altitude have been formed on resistant rocks. The Cambrian and Ordovician belt, containing mostly shale and carbonate rock, on the other hand, forms an extensive lowland from Alabama to the Canadian border and girdles the Adirondack Mountains. Differences in altitude can be explained by the presence of resistant rocks outside the belt; these resistant rocks form local base levels on the streams that drain the belt. A few areas may have undergone local uplift at a higher rate than areas nearby--for example, the Piedmont region northwest of Chesapeake Bay. Most estimates of erosion rates, based on the load transported by streams and of uplift rates, based on removal during a known period of time, are of the same order of magnitude, averaging almost 4x 10^-2 millimeters per year. Rates of uplift, based on study of tilted Pleistocene beaches and repeated geodetic traverses, are at least an order of magnitude higher for comparable areas. Tectonic uplift of the highlands has been slow and involves mostly warping or tilting on a large scale. Erosion rates keep up with or exceed the rate of uplift and have been sufficient to mask evidence of faulting or other differential movements. The high rates of uplift that are inferred on tilted water planes in the glaciated regions or that are measured by differences in repeated geodetic traverses cannot have been sustained for long periods of time.\r\n\r\nPART C: The Hanson Creek Formation southwest of Eureka, Nev., in the Bellevue Peak Quadrangle is composed of three lithostratigraphic members: (1) a basal dark-gray dolomite, (2) a middle silty thin- to thick-bedded, locally nodular, dark-gray, light-yellow-mottled limestone topped by light-gray dolomite, and (3) an upper dark-gray dolomite, which is herein named the Combs Canyon Dolomite Member. Detailed geologic mapping and accompanying fossil collecting prove that the same lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic sequence is present in the Mountain Boy Range and 11 km to the south near Wood Cone Peak. Minor differences in","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/pp1126AJ","usgsCitation":"Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, 1980, Shorter contributions to stratigraphy and structural geology, 1979: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1126, 114 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1126AJ.","productDescription":"114 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":32802,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1126a-j/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":117533,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1126a-j/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":402717,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74379.htm","text":"The Upper Ordovician and Silurian Hanson Creek Formation of central Nevada","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464253,"rank":4,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74380.htm","text":"The Marble Hill Bed: an offshore bar-tidal channel complex in the Upper Ordovician Drakes Formation of Kentucky","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464254,"rank":5,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74381.htm","text":"Paleogene sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks from Adak Island, central Aleutian Islands, Alaska","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464255,"rank":6,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74382.htm","text":"The Livengood Dome Chert, a new Ordovician Formation in central Alaska, and its relevance to displacement on the Tintina fault","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464256,"rank":7,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74383.htm","text":"New evidence supporting Nebraskan age for origin of Ohio River in north-central Kentucky","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464257,"rank":8,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74384.htm","text":"Intertonguing between the Star Point Sandstone and the coal-bearing Blackhawk Formation requires revision of some coal-bed correlations in the southern Wasatch Plateau, Utah","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464258,"rank":9,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74385.htm","text":"Constraints on the latest movements on the Melones fault zone, Sierra Nevada foothills, California","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":464259,"rank":10,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_74386.htm","text":"Origin of the river anticlines, central Grand Canyon, Arizona","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49fae4b07f02db5f3e20","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey","contributorId":128075,"corporation":true,"usgs":false,"organization":"Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey","id":528707,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":61113,"text":"mf1136 - 1979 - Faults in parts of north-central and western Houston metropolitan area, Texas","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-02-15T17:21:16","indexId":"mf1136","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1979","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":325,"text":"Miscellaneous Field Studies Map","code":"MF","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1136","title":"Faults in parts of north-central and western Houston metropolitan area, Texas","docAbstract":"<p>Hundreds of residential, commercial, and industrial structures in the Houston metropolitan area have sustained moderate to severe damage owing to their locations on or near active faults. Paved roads have been offset by faults at hundreds of locations, butted pipelines have been distorted by fault movements, and fault-induced gradient changes in drainage lines have raised concern among flood control engineers. Over 150 faults, many of them moving at rates of 0.5 to 2 cm/yr, have been mapped in the Houston area; the number of faults probably far exceeds this figure.</p><p>This report includes a map of eight faults, in north-central and western Houston, at a scale useful for land-use planning. Seven of the faults, are known, to be active and have caused considerable damage to structures built on or near them. If the eighth fault is active, it may be of concern to new developments on the west side of Houston. A ninth feature shown on the map is regarded only as a possible fault, as an origin by faulting has not been firmly established.</p><p>Seismic and drill-hold data for some 40 faults, studied in detail by various investigators have verified connections between scarps at the land surface and growth faults in the shallow subsurface. Some scarps, then, are known to be the surface manifestations of faults that have geologically long histories of movement. The degree to which natural geologic processes contribute to current fault movement, however, is unclear, for some of man’s activities may play a role in faulting as well.</p><p>Evidence that current rates of fault movement far exceed average prehistoric rates and that most offset of the land surface in the Houston area has occurred only within the last 50 years indirectly suggest that fluid withdrawal may be accelerating or reinitiating movement on pre-existing faults. This conclusion, however, is based only on a coincidence in time between increased fault activity and increased rates of withdrawal of water, oil, and gas from subsurface sediments; no cause-and-effect relationship has been demonstrated. An alternative hypothesis is that natural fault movements are characterized by short—term episodicity and that Houston is experiencing the effects of a brief period of accelerated natural fault movement. Available data from monitored faults are insufficient to weigh the relative importance of natural vs. induced fault movements.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey ","doi":"10.3133/mf1136","usgsCitation":"Verbeek, E.R., Ratzlaff, K.W., and Clanton, U.S., 1979, Faults in parts of north-central and western Houston metropolitan area, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map 1136, HTML Document, https://doi.org/10.3133/mf1136.","productDescription":"HTML Document","costCenters":[{"id":583,"text":"Texas Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":187172,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":6030,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.water.usgs.gov/mf1136/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":105508,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_6522.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"6522"}],"scale":"24000","country":"United States","state":"Texas","city":"Houston","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -95.61749999999999,29.666666666666668 ], [ -95.61749999999999,29.700833333333332 ], [ -95.41666666666667,29.700833333333332 ], [ -95.41666666666667,29.666666666666668 ], [ -95.61749999999999,29.666666666666668 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ae2e4b07f02db688d4d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Verbeek, Earl R.","contributorId":64222,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Verbeek","given":"Earl","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":265008,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Ratzlaff, Karl W.","contributorId":99177,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ratzlaff","given":"Karl","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":265009,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Clanton, Uel S.","contributorId":21821,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Clanton","given":"Uel","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":265007,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}}
,{"id":70012411,"text":"70012411 - 1979 - Surface faults in the gulf coastal plain between Victoria and Beaumont, Texas","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-14T15:14:48","indexId":"70012411","displayToPublicDate":"1979-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1979","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3525,"text":"Tectonophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Surface faults in the gulf coastal plain between Victoria and Beaumont, Texas","docAbstract":"<p>Displacement of the land surface by faulting is widespread in the Houston-Galveston region, an area which has undergone moderate to severe land subsidence associated with fluid withdrawal (principally water, and to a lesser extent, oil and gas). A causative link between subsidence and fluid extraction has been convincingly reported in the published literature. However, the degree to which fluid withdrawal affects fault movement in the Texas Gulf Coast, and the mechanism(s) by which this occurs are as yet unclear. </p><p>Faults that offset the ground surface are not confined to the large (&gt;6000-km<sup>2</sup>) subsidence “bowl” centered on Houston, but rather are common and characteristic features of Gulf Coast geology. Current observations and conclusions concerning surface faults mapped in a 35,000-km<sup>2</sup> area between Victoria and Beaumont, Texas (which area includes the Houston subsidence bowl) may be summarized as follows:</p><p> (1) Hundreds of faults cutting the Pleistocene&nbsp;and Holocene sediments exposed in the coastal plain have been mapped. Many faults lie well outside the Houston-Galveston region; of these, more than 10% are active, as shown by such features as displaced, fractured, and patched road surfaces, structural failure of buildings astride faults, and deformed railroad tracks.&nbsp;</p><p>(2) Complex patterns of surface faults are common above salt domes. Both radial patterns (for example, in High Island, Blue Ridge, Clam Lake, and Clinton domes) and crestal grabens (for example, in the South Houston and Friendswood-Webster domes) have been recognized. Elongate grabens connecting several known and suspected salt domes, such as the fault zone connecting Mykawa, Friendswood-Webster, and Clear Lake domes, suggest fault development above rising salt ridges. </p><p>(3) Surface faults associated with salt domes tend to be short (&lt;5 km in length), numerous, curved in map view, and of diverse trend. Intersecting faults are common. In contrast, surface faults in areas unaffected by salt diapirism are frequently mappable for appreciable distances (&gt;10 km), occur  singly or in simple grabens, have gently sinuous traces, and tend to lie roughly parallel to the ENE-NE “coastwise” trend common to regional growth faults identified in subsurface Tertiary sediments.&nbsp;</p><p>(4) Evidence to support the thesis that surface scarps are the shallow expression of faults extending downward into the Tertiary section is mostly indirect, but nonetheless reasonably convincing. Certainly the patterns of crestal grabens and radiating faults mapped on the surface above salt domes are more than happenstance; analogous fault patterns have been documented around these structures at depth. Similarly, some of the long surface faults not associated with salt domes seem to have subsurface counterparts among known regional growth faults documented through well logs and seismic data. Correlations between surface scarps and faults offsetting subsurface data are not conclusive because of the large vertical distances (1900- 3800 m) involved in making the most of the inferred connections. Nevertheless, the large number of successful correlations - in trend, movement sense, and position - suggests that many surface scarps represent merely the most recent displacements on faults formed during the Tertiary. </p><p>(5) Upstream-facing fault scarps in this region of low relief can be significant impediments to streams. Locally, both abandoned, mud-filled Pleistocene distributary channels and, more commonly, Holocene drainage lines still occupied by perennial streams reflect the influence of faulting on their development. Some bend sharply near faults and have tended to flow along or pond against the base of scarps; others meander within topographically expressed grabens. Such evidence for Quaternary displacement of the ground surface is widespread in the Texas Gulf coast. In the general, however, streams in areas now offset by faulting show no disruption of their courses where they cross fault scarps. Such scarps are probably very young, and where they can be demonstrated to partly or wholly predate fluid withdrawal, very recent natural fault activity is indicated.&nbsp;<br></p><p>(6) Early aerial photographs (1930) of the entire region and topographic maps (1915-16 surveys) of Harris County (Houston and vicinity) show that many faults had already displaced the land surface at a time when appreciable pressure declines in subjacent strata were localized to relatively few areas of large-scale pumping. Prehistoric faulting of the land surface, as noted above, appears to have affected much of the Texas Gulf Coast. </p><p>(7) A relation between groundwater extraction and current motion on active faults is suspected because of the increased incidence of ground failure in the Houston-Galveston subsidence bowl. This argument is weakened somewhat by recognition of numerous surface faults, some of them active today, far beyond the periphery of the strongly subsiding area. Moreover, tilt beam records from two monitored faults in northwest Houston and accounts of fault damage from local residents demonstrate a complex, episodic nature of fault creep which can only partially be correlated with groundwater production. Nevertheless, although specific mechanisms are in doubt, the extraction of groundwater from shallow (&lt;800-m) sands is probably a major factor in contributing to current displacement of the ground surface in the Houston-Galveston region. Within this large area, the number of faults recognizable from aerial photographs has increased at least tenfold between 1930 and 1970. Elsewhere in the Texas Gulf Coast only a moderate increase has been noted, some of which is possibly attributable to oil and gas production. Surface fault density in the Houston-Galveston region is far greater than in any other area of the Texas Gulf Coast investigated to date. A plausible explanation for these differences is that large overdrafts of groundwater over an extended period of time in the Houston-Galveston region have stimulated fault activity there. Throughout the Texas Gulf Coast, however, a natural contribution to fault motion remains a distinct possibility. </p>","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier ","doi":"10.1016/0040-1951(79)90248-8","issn":"00401951","usgsCitation":"Verbeek, E.R., 1979, Surface faults in the gulf coastal plain between Victoria and Beaumont, Texas: Tectonophysics, v. 52, no. 1-4, p. 373-375, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(79)90248-8.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"373","endPage":"375","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":221821,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Texas","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -95.30639648437499,\n              32.045332838858506\n            ],\n            [\n              -98.646240234375,\n              30.90222470517144\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.56982421875,\n              28.168875180063345\n            ],\n            [\n              -93.61450195312499,\n              29.6880527498568\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.30639648437499,\n              32.045332838858506\n            ]\n          ]\n        ]\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","volume":"52","issue":"1-4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505b9face4b08c986b31e785","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Verbeek, Earl R.","contributorId":64222,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Verbeek","given":"Earl","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":363474,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":66275,"text":"i1087 - 1978 - Channel migration of the White River in the eastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-02-16T11:09:56","indexId":"i1087","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1978","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":320,"text":"IMAP","code":"I","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1087","title":"Channel migration of the White River in the eastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado","docAbstract":"<p>The White River is the largest stream in the southeastern part of the Uinta Basin in Utah and Colorado. This map shows the changes that have occurred in the location of the main channel of the river from 1936 to 1974. The map indicated that certain reaches of the river are subject to different rates of channel migration. Also shown is the boundary of the flood plain, which is mapped at the point of abrupt break in slope. This map documents the position of the river channel prior to any withdrawals of water or alteration of the flow characteristics of the white river that may occur in order to meet water requirements principally associated with the proposed oil-shale industry or other development in the area.</p><p>The channel locations were determined from aerial photographs taken at four different time periods for the following Federal agencies: In 1936, U.S. Soil Conservation Services; 1953, U.S. Corps of Engineers; 1965, U.S. Geological Survey; and in 1974, U.S. Bureau of Land Management. The 1936 delineation, which is actually based upon photographs that were taken in 1936 and 1937, was made by projection of the original photographs on a base map that was prepared from 1:24,000 scale topographic maps. The 1953, 1965, and 1974 delineations were produced from stereographic models. The 1965 delineation was compiled from photographs that were taken during 1962-65. The delineation is labeled as 1965 for simplicity, however, because the photographs for 1965 cover about 60 percent of the study read of the river, and because no changed were discernable in those areas of repetitive photographic coverage.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/i1087","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Utah Department of Natural Resources Division of Water Rights","usgsCitation":"Jurado, A., and Fields, F.K., 1978, Channel migration of the White River in the eastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey IMAP 1087, 1 Map: 33.95 x 39.64 Inches; Cover: 9.20 x 11.87 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/i1087.","productDescription":"1 Map: 33.95 x 39.64 Inches; Cover: 9.20 x 11.87 inches","costCenters":[{"id":610,"text":"Utah Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":255735,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/1087/plate-1.pdf","text":"Map I-1087","size":"8.57 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":255736,"rank":300,"type":{"id":8,"text":"Cover"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/1087/report.pdf","text":"Folio Cover","size":"29.2 KB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":255737,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/1087/report-thumb.jpg"}],"scale":"48000","country":"United States","state":"Colorado, Utah","otherGeospatial":"Uinta Basin, White River","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -109.70083333333334,39.916666666666664 ], [ -109.70083333333334,40.1175 ], [ -109,40.1175 ], [ -109,39.916666666666664 ], [ -109.70083333333334,39.916666666666664 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49e4e4b07f02db5e6296","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Jurado, Antonio","contributorId":73264,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jurado","given":"Antonio","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":274283,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Fields, Fred K.","contributorId":69981,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fields","given":"Fred","email":"","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":274284,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
,{"id":8650,"text":"ofr78473 - 1978 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":8650,"text":"ofr78473 - 1978 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming","indexId":"ofr78473","publicationYear":"1978","noYear":false,"title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":5913,"text":"pp1164 - 1980 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area","indexId":"pp1164","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area"},"id":1}],"supersededBy":{"id":5913,"text":"pp1164 - 1980 - Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area","indexId":"pp1164","publicationYear":"1980","noYear":false,"title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the Sheridan, Wyoming, area"},"lastModifiedDate":"2024-01-05T20:17:02.933063","indexId":"ofr78473","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1978","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"78-473","title":"Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming","docAbstract":"<p>Analyses of the surface effects of past underground coal mining in the western Powder River Basin suggest that underground mining of strippable coal deposits will damage the environment more over long periods of time than will modern surface mining, provided proper restoration procedures are followed after surface mining. Subsidence depressions and pits are a continuing hazard to the environment and to man's activities 5-20 km north of Sheridan, Wyo., above mines that were abandoned 25-80 years ago where the overburden is weak and is less than about 60 m thick. In addition, fires commonly start by spontaneous combustion when water and air enter the abandoned mine workings via subsidence cracks and pits. The fires can then spread to unmined coal as they create more cavities, more subsidence, and more cracks and pits through which air can circulate.</p><p>In modern surface mining operations the total land surface underlain by minable coal is removed to expose the coal. The coal is removed, the overburden and topsoil are replaced, and the land regraded and revegetated. The land, although disturbed, can be more easily restored and put back into use than land underlain by abandoned underground mine workings in areas where the overburden is less than about 60 m thick. The resource recovery of modern surface mining also is much greater than that of underground mining procedures.</p><p>Although present-day underground mining technology is advanced as compared to that of 25-80 years ago, subsidence resulting from mining of thick coal beds beneath overburden less than about 60 m thick by underground methods can cause greater damage to surface drainage, ground water, and vegetation than can properly designed surface mining operations. This report briefly discusses the geology and surface and underground effects of former large-scale underground mining in a 50 km2 area north of Sheridan, Wyo. and describes some environmental consequences and problems caused by mining.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr78473","usgsCitation":"Dunrud, C., and Osterwald, F.W., 1978, Effects of coal mine subsidence in the western Powder River basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 78-473, iii, 71 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr78473.","productDescription":"iii, 71 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":424155,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1978/0473/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":141227,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1978/0473/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Wyoming","otherGeospatial":"Powder River basin","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -107.73961450431369,\n              44.834802347205994\n            ],\n            [\n              -107.73961450431369,\n              42.749396299259615\n            ],\n            [\n              -106.16856958243883,\n              42.749396299259615\n            ],\n            [\n              -106.16856958243883,\n              44.834802347205994\n            ],\n            [\n              -107.73961450431369,\n              44.834802347205994\n            ]\n          ]\n        ],\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a2fe4b07f02db6160ed","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Dunrud, C. Richard","contributorId":48964,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dunrud","given":"C. Richard","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":158091,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Osterwald, Frank W.","contributorId":98301,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Osterwald","given":"Frank","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":158092,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
,{"id":60407,"text":"mf786 - 1976 - Preliminary overview map of volcanic hazards in the 48 conterminous United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-06-20T09:54:07","indexId":"mf786","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":325,"text":"Miscellaneous Field Studies Map","code":"MF","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"786","title":"Preliminary overview map of volcanic hazards in the 48 conterminous United States","docAbstract":"<p>Volcanic eruptions and related phenomena can be expected to occur in the Western United States, and in some places are potentially hazardous enough to be considered in longe-range land-use planning. But the immediate risk from volcanic hazards is low because eruptions are so infrequent in the conterminous United States that few, if any, occur during any one person 1s lifetime. Furthermore, severely destructive effects of eruptions, other than extremely rare ones of catastrophic scale, probably would be limited to areas within a few tens of kilometers downvalley or downwind from a volcano. Thus, the area seriously endangered by any one eruption would be only a very small part of the Western United States.</p>\n<br/>\n<p>The accompanying map identifies areas in which volcanic hazards pose some degree of risk, and shows that the problem is virtually limited to the far western States. The map also shows the possible areal distribution of several kinds of dangerous eruptive events and indicates the relative likelihood of their occurrence at various volcanoes. The kinds of events described here as hazards are those that can occur suddenly and with little or no warning; they do not include long-term geologic processes. Table 1 summarizes the origin and some characteristics of potentially hazardous volcanic phenomena.</p>\n<br/>\n<p>The map is diagrammatic. It does not show the specific location of the next expected eruption , because such an event cannot be reliably predicted . Instead, the map shows general areas or zones that, over a long period of time, are relatively likely to be affected in one or more places by various kinds of hazardous volcanic events. However, only a small part of one of these areas would be affected by any single eruption.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/mf786","usgsCitation":"Mullineaux, D.R., 1976, Preliminary overview map of volcanic hazards in the 48 conterminous United States: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map 786, 38.41 x 28.66 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/mf786.","productDescription":"38.41 x 28.66 inches","costCenters":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":183335,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/mf786.jpg"},{"id":288952,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/mf/0786/"},{"id":288953,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/mf/0786/pdf/MF786.pdf"}],"scale":"7500000","country":"United States","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -125.84,23.68 ], [ -125.84,51.97 ], [ -63.33,51.97 ], [ -63.33,23.68 ], [ -125.84,23.68 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66cd4f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mullineaux, D. R.","contributorId":64248,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mullineaux","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":263695,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":14663,"text":"ofr75250 - 1975 - Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Ketchikan area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-07-18T20:56:19.121311","indexId":"ofr75250","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"75-250","title":"Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Ketchikan area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","docAbstract":"<p>The Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, dramatically emphasized the need for engineering geologic studies of urban areas in seismically active regions. A reconnaissance study of the Ketchikan area in southeastern Alaska is part of a program to evaluate earthquake and other geologic hazards in most of the larger Alaska coastal communities. These evaluations in the Ketchikan area should provide broad guidelines useful in city and land-use planning.</p><p>Ketchikan, which had a population of approximately 7,000 in 1970, is built on the southwestern end of Revillagigedo Island along the northeastern coastline of Tongass Narrows. Altitudes reach 1,000 feet (305 m) within half a mile (0.8 km) of the coast and near-vertical cliffs characterize the terrain in places. The climate is predominantly marine. Average precipitation is approximately 152 inches (386 cm).</p><p>The Ketchikan area was covered by glacier ice at least once and probably several times during the Pleistocene Epoch. The present topography, characterized by elongate lakes, U-shaped valleys, fiords, inlets, and passages, clearly reflects the effects of glaciation. The presence of emergent marine deposits, at least 300 feet (91 m) above sea level, shows that the land has been uplifted relative to sea level since the last deglaciation of the region.</p><p>Bedrock is exposed or is near the surface throughout most of the mapped area. The bedrock consists chiefly of metamorphic rocks. In a few places these rocks have been intruded by igneous rocks. Exposed metamorphic rocks are mostly thinly foliated schists and phyllites, metamorphosed to greenschist facies. Foliation generally strikes northwest with moderate to steep dips to the northeast. Most of the rock is fairly competent and near-vertical cuts tend to be stable. The more indurated metamorphic rock can be used for riprap, but more durable blocks generally can be obtained from the igneous rock.</p><p style=\"text-align: left;\" data-mce-style=\"text-align: left;\">The surficial deposits have been divided into the following map units on the basis of their time of deposition, mode of origin, and grain size: (1) undifferentiated drift (Qd), (2) elevated marine deposits (Qm), (3) stream alluvium (Qa), (4) fan-delta deposits (Qf), and (5) modern beach deposits (Qb). Manmade fill (f) also is mapped as a separate unit. Muskeg, colluvium, and offshore deposits are not included as map units but are discussed in the report under the heading \"Surficial deposits (not shown on map).\" The undifferentiated drift deposits consist mostly of till or other diamictons, generally less than 25 feet (7.6 m) thick. Exposed elevated marine deposits (Qm) generally consist of sand and gravel less than 5 feet (1.5 m) thick. Stream alluvium (Qa) is chiefly sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders probably everywhere less than 15 feet (4.6 m) thick. Fan-delta deposits (Qf) consist mostly of loose sand, gravel, and boulders as much as 50 feet (15 m) thick. Modern beach deposits (Qb) are mostly loose sand and gravel generally less than 10 feet (3 m) thick. Two basically different types of manmade fill are present: (1) large fills along the waterfront, commonly 5 to 15 feet (1.5-4.6 m) thick, consisting of silt, sand, gravel, rock, and diverse other materials, and (2) fills, generally less than 10 feet (3 m) thick and consisting of sand, gravel, or crushed rock, placed inland from the waterfront and used as pads for buildings and parking areas. Fairly thick deposits of muskeg may be present in the southeastern part of the mapped area but have not been examined in the field. Colluvial deposits, locally 5 to 8 feet (1.5-2.4 m) thick, consist mostly of decomposing bedrock fragments. Offshore deposits are poorly known; near-shore loose sand and gravel rest on a sloping bedrock surface.</p><p>Southeastern Alaska lies within the circum-Pacific seismic belt that rims the northern Pacific Basin and has been tectonically active since at least early Paleozoic time. Large-scale faulting has been common. The two most prominent fault systems in southeastern Alaska and surrounding regions are (1) the Denali fault system, and (2) the Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system. Of the two, the Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system is the more active and of most significance in relation to the Ketchikan area. Ketchikan lies within the northwest trend of the Gravina-Nutzotin belt of fault thrusting. The trends of at least some of the linear fiords near the mapped area are controlled by faults. However, it is not known whether a major fault extends up Tongass Narrows offshore from Ketchikan.</p><p>Between 1899 and 1970, five earthquakes having magnitudes of 8 or greater occurred in or near southeastern Alaska or in adjacent offshore areas; three have occurred having magnitudes of between 7 and 8, at least eight with magnitudes of between 6 and 7, 15 with magnitudes of between 5 and 6, and about 140 have been recorded with magnitudes of less than 5 or of unassigned magnitudes. All of the earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 8, and a large proportion of the others, appear to be related to the Fair-weather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or to the connecting Chugach-St. Elias fault to the northwest. Within a 50-mile (80-km) radius of Ketchikan, epicenters of three earthquakes with magnitudes of 5 or less have been recorded. Within a radius of 100 miles (160 km), 10 epicenters have been recorded, two with magnitudes between 6 and 7 and eight with magnitudes of 5 or less. Although no instrumentally recorded earthquakes had epicenters in the mapped area, at least 32 earthquakes that had epicenters elsewhere were felt or possibly felt in Ketchikan. Most of these earthquakes probably had epicenters along the Queen Charlotte Islands fault.</p><p>Ketchikan is tentatively assigned by me to seismic zone 2. This is a zone in which magnitudes of the largest expectable earthquake would range from 4.5 to 6.0 and where moderate damage could be expected. Large earthquakes of magnitude 8 or greater, however, can be expected to occur from time to time along the Queen Charlotte Islands fault. Ground motion from these earthquakes, although attenuated with distance, may still be sufficiently strong at Ketchikan to cause substantial damage.</p><p>Possible future earthquake effects include: (1) land-level changes caused by local faulting or by large-scale regional deformation, (2) ground shaking, (3) compaction, (4) liquefaction, (5) subaerial and submarine sliding, (6) water-sediment ejection and ground fracturing, (7) reaction of sensitive and quick clays, and (8) effects of tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves. Although land-level changes due to local faulting are unlikely, large-scale regional deformation may cause uplift or subsidence in Ketchikan. Adverse effects would be confined mainly to the waterfront area. This area also would be most heavily damaged if Ketchikan were strongly shaken by an earthquake. Nonengineered, loose, manmade fills and fan-delta deposits in this area probably would be subject to the strongest shaking. These deposits probably also are most subject to compaction, liquefaction, sliding, and water-sediment ejection. Earthquake effects expectably would be considerably fewer and less severe for the part of Ketchikan upslope from the harbor area because bedrock is at or near the surface in large parts of the area. No sensitive clays have been identified but, if present, they probably are confined to the till and other diamicton deposits in the northeastern part of the mapped area. Tsunami waves are not expected to have a local generation source. Those arriving from a distant source, although potentially highly destructive, probably would be greatly attenuated before arriving at Ketchikan. Seiche waves may develop on lakes near the mapped area and possibly cause failure of earth-fill dams. Destructive waves generated by earthquake-induced local submarine sliding appear to be unlikely in the Ketchikan area.</p><p>Geologic hazards in the area that are not caused by earthquakes are believed to be relatively minor. They include: (1) landsliding and subaqueous sliding, and (2) flooding. Only minor landsliding has occurred in the mapped area, but the potential for sliding may increase as the city expands and heavily timbered areas are cleared, with attendant accelerated erosion and mass wasting. The greatest potential for subaqueous sliding is along the shoreline, where fairly thick fan-delta deposits rest on a sloping bedrock surface. Periodic flooding has occurred on some creeks in the mapped area and can be expected to occur from time to time in the future.</p><p>In order that more accurate evaluations of geologic hazards can be made in the future, several recommendations are made for additional studies.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr75250","usgsCitation":"Lemke, R., 1975, Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Ketchikan area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 75-250, Report: iii, 65 p.; 1 Plate: 53.36 x 18.70 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr75250.","productDescription":"Report: iii, 65 p.; 1 Plate: 53.36 x 18.70 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":419097,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1975/0250/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":419096,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1975/0250/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":148248,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1975/0250/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","city":"Ketchikan","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -132.1008985363706,\n              55.53989430363504\n            ],\n            [\n              -132.1008985363706,\n              55.10963711958067\n            ],\n            [\n              -131.2097064951564,\n              55.10963711958067\n            ],\n            [\n              -131.2097064951564,\n              55.53989430363504\n            ],\n            [\n              -132.1008985363706,\n              55.53989430363504\n            ]\n          ]\n        ],\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a74e4b07f02db64462b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lemke, Richard W.","contributorId":59409,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemke","given":"Richard W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":169808,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":70232446,"text":"70232446 - 1974 - Paleozoic tectonics in the Edna Mountain quadrangle, Nevada","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-07-01T16:00:25.444271","indexId":"70232446","displayToPublicDate":"1974-05-01T10:52:48","publicationYear":"1974","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2446,"text":"Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Paleozoic tectonics in the Edna Mountain quadrangle, Nevada","docAbstract":"<p>Geologic mapping at scale 1:24,000 of the Edna Mountain 15-minute quadrangle, Humboldt County, Nev., revealed two episodes of pre-Mesozoic deformation that are difficult to reconcile with either the Antler or the Sonoma orogeny. We believe that the older episode predated the Antler orogeny and may be as old as Late Cambrian. The younger episode may have been more localized, predated the Sonoma orogeny, and was probably Late Pennsylvanian to Permian in age. Deformation related to Antler and Sonoma orogenies also occurred. These four episodes suggest that cycles of uplift, folding, faulting, and erosion began early in the development of the southern Cordillera and continued intermittently throughout Paleozoic time. West of the continental shelf was a broad subsiding basin marked by narrow troughs and elongate structural highs which emerged, matured, and diminished at different times. Waxing and waning deformation in various parts of the geosyncline acting upon local \"highs\" and troughs can explain the seemingly erratic distribution in north-central Nevada of different fades of time-correlative stratigraphic units and structural blocks of Paleozoic age. Telescoping of facies by thrust faulting certainly took place, but large displacements within brief periods are not essential to the validity of the explanation.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","usgsCitation":"Erickson, R.L., and Marsh, S.P., 1974, Paleozoic tectonics in the Edna Mountain quadrangle, Nevada: Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey, v. 2, no. 3, p. 331-337.","productDescription":"7 p.","startPage":"331","endPage":"337","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":402844,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":402843,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/journal/1974/vol2issue3/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Nevada","county":"Humboldt County","otherGeospatial":"Edna Mountain quadrangle","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -117.5,\n              41\n            ],\n            [\n              -117.25,\n              41\n            ],\n            [\n              -117.25,\n              40.75\n            ],\n            [\n              -117.5,\n              40.75\n            ],\n            [\n              -117.5,\n              41\n            ]\n          ]\n        ]\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","volume":"2","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Erickson, R. L.","contributorId":26318,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Erickson","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":845559,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Marsh, S. P.","contributorId":292712,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Marsh","given":"S.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":845560,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
,{"id":70207089,"text":"70207089 - 1973 - Mantle convection and volcanic periodicity in the pacific; Evidence from Hawaii","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-12-06T07:14:24","indexId":"70207089","displayToPublicDate":"1973-12-31T14:27:28","publicationYear":"1973","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1786,"text":"Geological Society of America Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Mantle convection and volcanic periodicity in the pacific; Evidence from Hawaii","docAbstract":"<p><span>The thermal-feedback theory of mantle melting proposed by Shaw in 1969 is found to be quantitatively consistent with data pertaining to the evolution of the Hawaiian Ridge. Applicable rate factors are estimated from relations between lava volumes and position along the ridge given in this paper and the radio-metric age distributions given by Jackson and others in 1972. Rate curves derived from these data provide a new method of age extrapolation or interpolation; results indicate that previous methods used to estimate the age of the Hawaiian-Emperor Bend are in error. No definite age is established, but calculations suggest an age greater than 50 m.y. Much more extensive radiometric data are required to define kinematic relations between the Hawaiian Ridge and Emperor Seamount chain. It appears to be firmly established from the work of Jackson and others and from the present study that the evolution of the Hawaiian Ridge has been episodic, with episodes of several different time scales. Average growth rates of the entire ridge system are divided into two regimes with a discontinuity at a position roughly 1,000 km northwest of Kilauea; the estimated age of this discontinuity is about 10 m.y. Other episodes relate to the durations of eruptive sequences along individual or contiguous lines of volcanoes within the en échelon set of locus lines defined by Jackson and others. The latest of these episodes, beginning about 6 m.y. ago, is marked by accelerating volume rates of eruption and accelerating rates of ridge propagation; this episode appears to be approaching a culminating stage represented by the present activity of Kilauea Volcano. The calculated rate of eruption of Kilauea (0.11 km</span><sup>3</sup><span>&nbsp;per yr) is virtually identical with a rate independently estimated by Swanson in 1972 using different data. Calculated durations for older locus lines are generally greater than 6 m.y., but major time overlaps occur that are not adequately understood. Episodic behavior of shorter durations also exists relative to growth of individual shields or to synchronous activity on neighboring shields (for example, Mauna Loa and Kilauea). Some of these shorter term effects are partly explained in terms of isostatic factors acting on the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The longer episodes are explained in terms of variations of melting rates in the asthenosphere, governed by viscous heating produced by the interaction of lithosphere translation and both vertical and horizontal shear flows in the subjacent mantle. Accelerations of eruption and propagation rates are explained by melting instabilities in the upper zones of the asthenosphere as a result of thermal feedback. During the latest melting episode, shear stresses in the asthenosphere derived from the rate data as interpreted by the thermal feedback model are in the range 100 to 200 bars; apparent viscosities range from 2 × 10</span><sup>21</sup><span>&nbsp;to 4 × 10</span><sup>20</sup><span>&nbsp;poise, decreasing with increasing melting rate. In general, a thermomechanical model is shown to be consistent with the idea that oceanic melting spots can be fixed relative to the deep mantle, although this invariance is not completely established. The thermal plume model of Morgan is not definitely ruled out but does not seem to be required for internally consistent interpretations of oceanic chains of volcanism. It is concluded that motion vectors of the Pacific plate cannot be inferred directly from rates of propagation of volcanic chains, because these rates reflect local, not average, relative velocities of lithosphere versus mantle flow. During growth of the Hawaiian Ridge, propagation speeds calculated on the basis of rate data for the southeastern Hawaiian Islands ranged from less than 1 cm per yr near the Hawaiian-Emperor Bend to nearly 30 cm per yr at the present ridge front.&nbsp;</span></p>","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<1505:MCAVPI>2.0.CO;2","issn":"00167606","usgsCitation":"Shaw, H.R., 1973, Mantle convection and volcanic periodicity in the pacific; Evidence from Hawaii: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, no. 5, p. 1505-1526, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<1505:MCAVPI>2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"1505","endPage":"1526","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":370013,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States 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 \"}}]}","volume":"84","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Shaw, H. R.","contributorId":23952,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Shaw","given":"H.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":776790,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":14667,"text":"ofr72230 - 1972 - Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-02-09T20:07:02.07676","indexId":"ofr72230","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-230","title":"Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska","docAbstract":"<p>The great Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, brought into sharp focus the need for engineering geologic studies in seismically active regions. As a result, nine communities in southeastern Alaska were selected for reconnaissance investigations as an integral part of an overall program to evaluate earthquake and other geologic hazards in most of the larger Alaska coastal communities. This report gives background information on the regional and other general factors that bear on these evaluations.</p><p>Southeastern Alaska, about 525 miles long and averaging about 125 miles in width, consists of a narrow mainland strip and numerous islands. For the most part, it is a region of rugged relief with numerous glaciers capping many of the higher mountainous areas and with long linear fiords forming the inland waterways. A maritime climate prevails with mild winters and cool summers. The southeastern part of the region receives the highest precipitation in the continental United States. Ketchikan, with a population of 6,994 in 1970, is the largest city. Geology and structure of the area are complex. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks crop out and range in age from Paleozoic to Tertiary. Surficial deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene age mantle many areas.</p><p>All of southeastern Alaska, except probably the highest peaks, was covered by glacier ice advances of late Pleistocene age. Major deglaciation was well advanced by 10,000 years ago--a time which approximately marks the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene. There followed a period of warm climate called the Hypsithermal, which in southeastern Alaska began 7,000-8,000 years ago and ended about 4,800-3,500 years ago. Glaciers in most places receded back of their present positions. The Hypsithermal was followed by an interval (termed Neoglaciation) of cooler climate and resurgence of glacier ice which continues to the present, although most glaciers are now rapidly receding.</p><p>During the past 10,000 years worldwide sea level has risen about 100 feet, but during the past 4,000 years it has risen only about 10 feet or about 0.03 inch per year. With sea level used as a datum, the amount of sea-level rise must be added to the apparent uplift of land for the time under consideration to determine the actual amount of land uplift.</p><p>The widespread presence of emergent marine deposits, several hundred feet above sea level, demonstrates that the land in southeastern Alaska has been uplifted since the last major deglaciation. The greatest known has been uplifted since the last major deglaciation. The greatest known uplift is in the vicinity of Juneau where glaciomarine deposits are present 750 feet above present sea level. Part of southeastern Alaska is presently undergoing one of the most rapid rates of uplift of any place in the world. The fastest emergence is occurring in the Glacier Bay area where the land is being uplifted relative to sea level approximately 3.9 cm per year. Most or all of the uplift appears to be due to rebound as a result of deglaciation.<br></p><p>Southeastern Alaska lies within the circum-Pacific earthquake belt, one of the world's greatest zones of seismic activity. During historic time, there have been five earthquakes in the region with magnitudes of 8 or greater, three with magnitudes of 7 to 8, eight with magnitudes of 6 to 7, more than 15 with magnitudes of 5 to 6, and about 140 recorded earthquakes with magnitudes smaller than 5 or of unassigned magnitudes. All of the earthquakes with magnitudes 8 or greater, and a large proportion of the others, appear to be related to the active Fairweather- Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or its western extension, the Chugach-St. Elias fault. Earthquake epicenters on the Denali fault system, the other major fault system in southeastern Alaska, are few in comparison. However, because high microearthquake activity has been recorded recently on this system and earthquakes of moderate size have occurred on some of its segments, the Denali fault system probably should not be dismissed as a relict fault system of no current tectonic importance. There are numerous other known faults, as well as lineaments that may be faults of varying degrees of tectonic activity in southeastern Alaska, adjacent Canada, and eastern Alaska. One of these elements is the Totschunda fault system, which connects with the Denali fault system in eastern Alaska; it has been very active during Holocene time but few historical earthquake epicenters appear to be related to it.</p><p>Both historical seismicity and geologic conditions, such as frequency and recency of faulting, must be considered together to permit an assessment of the future earthquake probability of an area. Data are too few for both factors for an accurate evaluation to be made of earthquake probability in southeastern Alaska. However, information compiled in the form of strain-release and seismic-zone maps permit some generalizations. Thus, it is tentatively concluded that most, if not all, of southeastern Alaska should be placed in seismic zone 3, a zone in which earthquakes of magnitude greater than 6 will occur from time to time and where there may be major damage to manmade structures.</p><p>Inferred effects from future earthquakes in southeastern Alaska include: (1) surface displacement along faults and other tectonic land-level changes, (2) ground shaking, (3) compaction, (4) liquefaction in cohesionless materials, (5) reaction of sensitive and quick clays, (6) water-sediment ejection and associated subsidence and ground fracturing, (7) earthquake-induced sub aerial slides and slumps, (8) earthquake induced subaqueous slides, (9) effects on glaciers and related features, (10) effects on ground water and stream flow, and (11) tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves. Because of the reconnaissance nature of our studies in the coastal communities and the sparsity of laboratory data on physical properties of geologic units in each area studied, the inferred effects must be largely empirical and generalized. Therefore, the inferences are based in large part upon the effects of past major earthquakes in Alaska and elsewhere, particularly upon the well-documented effects of the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964.</p><p>Buildings, highways, bridges, tunnels, harbor facilities, pipelines, canals, and other manmade structures may be severely damaged or destroyed by fault displacement or related tectonic land-level changes in southeastern Alaska. Direct damage from fault rupture would be restricted virtually to structures built directly athwart the fault. In California and Nevada, fault rupture almost always accompanies shocks of magnitude 6.5 or greater. The Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, and the Chilean earthquake of May 22, 1960, dramatically illustrated the severe adverse effects that can result from uplift or subsidence over a wide area.</p><p>The variable most responsible for the degree of shaking at any epicentral distance is the type of ground. Generally, shaking is considerably greater in poorly consolidated deposits than in hard bedrock, particularly if the deposits are water saturated. Severe shaking of alluvial deposits and manmade fill, with resultant heavy damage, is well documented from the records of many past earthquakes.</p><p>Damage commonly has been heavy as a result of ground settlement caused by compaction of loose sediments by shaking during an earthquake. This has been especially true where compaction was accompanied by tectonic downdrop of land, such as occurred during the Chilean earthquake of 1960 and the Alaska earthquake of 1964. Loosely emplaced manmade fill, deltaic deposits, beach deposits, and alluvial deposits may be susceptible to compaction in southeastern Alaska during a severe earthquake.</p><p>Liquefaction of sand and silt is a fairly common effect of large earthquakes. It was well illustrated at Niigata, Japan, during the earthquake of June 16, 1964, and resulted in extensive damage. When part of a sloping soil mass liquefies, the entire mass can undergo catastrophic failure and can flow as a high-density liquid. In southeastern Alaska, deltaic deposits probably would be most susceptible to liquefaction.</p><p>Sensitive and quick clays, which lose a considerable part of their strength when shaken, commonly fail during an earthquake and become rapid earthflows. Extensive studies were made of the sensitivity of the Bootlegger Cove Clay at Anchorage because of the marked loss of shear strength and dramatic failures of the deposits during the Alaska earthquake of 1964. If similar sensitive clays are present in some places in southeastern Alaska, they most likely are in some of the emergent fine-grained marine deposits; supporting data to confirm their presence, however, are largely lacking.</p><p>Records of some 50 major earthquakes show that in at least half of the instances water and sediment have been ejected from surficial deposits Water-sediment ejection and associated subsidence and ground fracturing commonly cause extensive damage to the works of man. Ejecta may fill basements and other low-lying parts of buildings. Agricultural land can be covered with a blanket of infertile soils, and small ponds can be filled or made shallow. In southeastern Alaska these phenomena are most likely to occur on valley floors, deltas, tidal flats, alluvial fans, swamps, and lakeshores.</p><p>Earthquake-induced sliding on land generally is confined to steep slopes but may take place in fine-grained deposits on moderately to nearly flat surfaces if the deposits are subject to liquefaction. A large rockslide triggered by the Lituya Bay, Alaska, earthquake of July 10, 1958, generated a wave that surged up the opposite wall of the inlet to a record height of 1,740 feet. During the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of August 17, 1959, a spectacular rockslide plunged into the Madison River canyon, buried 28 people, dammed the river, and created a large lake. Earthquake-records are replete with accounts of sliding of surficial deposits during moderate to large earthquakes. Most or all of the general factors that favor subaerial landsliding are present in southeastern Alaska.</p><p>Earthquake-induced subaqueous slides can produce adverse effects both nearshore and some distance offshore. Nearshore sliding may progress shoreward and destroy harbor facilities and other structures, commonly with substantial loss of life. Disastrous large submarine slides occurred along the fronts of deltas in Seward and Valdez during the Alaska earthquake of 1964. In similar fashion, the largest submarine slides in southeastern Alaska likely will be triggered along the larger delta fronts. Sliding farther offshore can constitute a threat to navigation because of changes in water depths. Also underwater sliding can break communication cables.</p><p>Glaciers were not greatly affected by the Alaska earthquake of 1964 despite the fact that about 20 percent of the area that underwent strong shaking is covered by ice. In contrast, the cataclysmic avalanche of ice and rock that fell from a high glacier-covered peak in Peru during the earthquake of May 31, 1970, produced devastating effects downvalley on man and his works in the form of mudflows. Most towns in southeastern Alaska are sufficiently distant from glaciers so as not be to directly affected.</p><p>Both the Alaska earthquake of 1964 and the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of 1959 significantly affected ground- and surface-water regimens. Water levels in some wells declined whereas in others flow increased. Some springs discharged at a rate three times as much as normal; flow of others decreased or stopped. Discharge of many streams increased markedly. Most or all of the effects described above could occur in parts of southeastern Alaska during future large earthquakes.</p><p>Tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves associated with large earthquakes commonly cause vast property damage and heavy loss of life. Tsunami effects can be devastating to coastal areas as far as many thousands of miles from their generation source. Seiche effects generally are confined to inland bodies of water or to relatively enclosed coastal bodies of water. Abnormal waves generated by submarine sliding or by subaerial sliding into water generally produce only local effects but may be highly devastating. Tsunami waves resulting from the Chilean earthquake of 1960 inflicted extensive damage and loss of life on coastal communities throughout a large part of southern Chile, and significant runups and damage were recorded in many places throughout the Pacific Ocean area. The tsunami waves generated by the Alaska earthquake of 1964 struck with devastating force along a broad stretch of the Alaska coast and produced heavy property damage and loss of life as far away as Crescent City, Calif. Seiche waves generated by that earthquake reached runup heights of 20-30 feet on some lakes in Alaska, and water-level fluctuations were recorded on streams, reservoirs, lakes, and swimming pools in States bordering the Gulf of Mexico. Waves generated by submarine sliding struck violently at a number of places during or immediately after the quake and were the major cause of loss of life and damage to property. Slide-generated waves probably would have a higher destructive potential in southeastern Alaska than either tsunami waves or seiche waves because of their possibly higher local runups and because they can hit the shores almost without warning during or immediately after an earthquake.</p><p>Nonearthquake-related geologic hazards, although generally far less dramatic than those related to earthquakes, tend to occur so much more frequently or persistently that their aggregate effects can be significant. Three kinds of geologic hazards of this type are discussed: (1) nonearthquake-induced landsliding and subaqueous sliding, (2) flooding, and (3) land uplift.</p><p>The potential for nonearthquake-triggered landsliding in southeastern Alaska ranges widely from place to place. Past sliding generally furnishes the clue in the prediction of where and in what materials future sliding will occur. Fast-moving rockslides, debris slides, and mudflows can be expected to occur from time to time on steep slopes and be highly destructive to highways, power plants, pipelines, buildings, and other facilities located on a slope or at its base. Present slow downslope movement of talus can be expected to continue at the same general rate unless conditions are changed by man or there are climatic changes. Snow and debris avalanches can be especially hazardous during winter months. Long-inactive landslides may be triggered into renewed activity or new slides may be created by man-induced modifications. Accelerated slope erosion and debris flows may follow large-scale clearing and cutting of timber. Subaqueous sliding can be expected to occur periodically along fronts of deltas and on other oversteepened underwater slopes.</p><p>Floods have been common in parts of southeastern Alaska because of heavy precipitation and rapid runoff from steep slopes with resulting heavy damage to roads and other facilities. Continued damage can be expected in the future unless more remedial measures are taken.</p><p>Current uplift of land in southeastern Alaska, although probably not affecting man significantly in a short period of time, may have some adverse long-term effects. These long-term effects should be borne in mind when facilities such as docks and boat harbors are constructed on or near the shore, where there is a critical relation between height of land and water.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72230","usgsCitation":"Lemke, R.W., and Yehle, L.A., 1972, Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-230, ii, 99 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72230.","productDescription":"ii, 99 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":425551,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0230/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":147832,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0230/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United 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,{"id":16672,"text":"ofr72454 - 1972 - Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Skagway area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-03-27T17:56:09.862376","indexId":"ofr72454","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-454","title":"Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Skagway area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","docAbstract":"<p>A program to study the engineering geology of most of the larger Alaska coastal communities and to evaluate their earthquake and other geologic hazards was started promptly after the 1964 Alaska earthquake; this report is a product of that program. Field-study methods were largely reconnaissance, and thus the interpretations in the report are subject to revision as further information becomes available. The report provides broad guidelines for planners and engineers when considering geologic factors during preparation of land-use plans. The use of this information should lead to minimizing future loss of life and property, especially during major earthquakes.</p><p>Skagway was established in 1897 as a seaport near the head of Taiya Inlet fiord in the northern part of southeastern Alaska. Rugged mountains, steep-walled valleys, fiords, and numerous glaciers and icefields characterize the landscape of the area. Valley floors are narrow and most carry large streams, which end in tidewater deltas. Skagway is situated on the delta and lower valley floor of the Skagway River.</p><p>Glaciers became vastly enlarged during the Pleistocene Epoch and presumably covered the area at least several times. The last major deglaciation probably occurred about 10,000 years ago. Subsequently, there was minor expansion and then partial retreat of glaciers; land rebound because of glacial melting is still going on today.</p><p>Bedrock is composed predominantly of plutonic intrusive rocks, chiefly quartz diorite and granodiorite, some metamorphic rocks and a few dikes are present. Most bedrock is of Jurassic and Cretaceous age.</p><p>An assortment of surficial deposits of Quaternary age form the valley bottoms and locally part of the valley walls. Thick deposits of sand and gravel have accumulated as deltas at the heads of fiords and as alluvium in the main stream valleys; deposits may be as much as S8S feet thick at Skagway. Locally, thin deposits mantle some of the steep bedrock slopes and also form some moderately to gently sloping ground. Manmade fill covers much of the top of the delta and floor of the Skagway valley. The fill is composed chiefly of gravel and sand. Quarried blocks of granodiorite are used as riprap to face river dikes and on fill areas exposed to waves of Taiya Inlet.</p><p>The geologic structure of the area is imperfectly known. However, it appears that plutonic rocks intruded metamorphic rocks in Jurassic and Cretaceous time. Extensive faulting is strongly indicated by the strikingly linear or curvilinear pattern of fiords and many large and small valleys, but no major faults have been positively identified because of concealment by water or surficial deposits. Inferred faults include those coincident with the lower Skagway valley, Taiya Inlet-Taiya valley, and the Katzehin River delta-Upper Dewey Lake. Principal fault movements probably occurred in middle Tertiary time but some movement might have been in late Tertiary or possibly early Quaternary time. Local faults appear to join the Chilkat River fault, a segment of the important Denali fault system, one of the major tectonic elements of southeastern Alaska. One fault segment of this system shows evidence of movement within the last several hundred years. Southeastern Alaska's other major fault system is the active Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system'near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. This fault system passes to within about 100 miles of Skagway. At its northwest end the fault system merges with the Chugach-St. Elias fault.</p><p>One hundred twenty-two earthquakes, some of them strong, have been felt or possibly felt at Skagway during the years 1898 through 1969. The closest large earthquake (magnitude about 8) causing some damage at Skagway occurred July 10, 1958. Its epicenter was about 100 miles to the southwest. Other earthquakes, as much as 150 miles away, also have caused slight to moderate damage. The closest instrumentally recorded earthquake (magnitude 6) had its epicenter about 30 miles to the west of Skagway.</p><p>Most earthquakes in southeastern Alaska have occurred southwest, west, or northwest of Skagway, near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. They appear to be related to movement along the Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or the Chugach-St. Elias fault. Most have had their epicenters offshore. Some earthquakes may be related to movement at depth along the Denali fault system.</p><p>The probability of destructive earthquakes at Skagway is unknown because the tectonics of the region have not been studied in detail. However, on the basis of the seismic record and limited tectonic evidence, we suggest that sometime in the future an earthquake of at least magnitude 6 probably will occur very close to the city, a magnitude 7 earthquake might occur in the general area, and an earthquake of magnitude 8 probably will occur at some distance to the southwest, west, or northwest.</p><p>Effects from nearby large earthquakes could cause extensive damage at Skagway. Nine principal effects are considered.</p><p>1. Surface&nbsp;displacement. Displacement of ground caused by fault movement would affect only structures built athwart the fault. However, a sudden tectonic uplift of land of as much as a few feet might affect a wide area and necessitate extensive dredging and wharf rebuilding. On the other hand, a subsidence of several feet would allow tidewater to reach inland and flood part of the harbor facilities and the business district.</p><p>2. Ground shaking. Because intensity of ground shaking during earthquakes largely depends on type and water content of the geologic material being shaken, the geologic materials are separated into three categories. Those considered susceptible to strongest shaking are grouped into category 1 (containing materials that are saturated, loose, and of medium- to fine-grain sizes); those of intermediate susceptibility in category 2; and those least susceptible to shaking in category 3.</p><p>3. Compaction of some medium-grained sediments during strong earthquake shaking could cause local settling of alluvial and deltaic surfaces. Also, some manmade fills near the harbor might undergo marked differential settling.</p><p>4. Liquefaction of saturated beds of uniform, fine sand commonly occurs during strong earthquakes. Few such beds, however, are positively identified at Skagway; some may occur within deltaic and alluvial deposits. If present, these beds might liquefy and cause local settling or trigger landslides.</p><p>5. Ejection of water-sediment mixtures from earthquake-induced fractures or from point sources, plus some associated ground subsidence, is common during major earthquakes where saturated sand and fine gravel deposits are confined beneath generally impermeable beds. Some alluvial and deltaic deposits at Skagway probably are susceptible to these processes. Locally, ejecta might cover roads and areas between buildings and fill low-lying areas. Associated ground fracturing might damage roadways, foundations of buildings, and other facilities.</p><p>6. Subaerial and subaqueous slides occur frequently during earthquakes. Saturated loose sediments on steep slopes are especially susceptible to sliding. During a major earthquake, surficial deposits forming such slopes along the southeast side of the Skagway valley probably would be subject to sliding or earthflowing on an extensive scale. Some sliding might extend onto the valley floor and damage or destroy buildings and part of the railroad. Rockfalls would be numerous and locally very large rockslides might occur.</p><p>Subaqueous sliding of the Skagway delta is potentially the most damaging of earthquake effects. Sliding may have occurred there during the earthquake of September 16, 1899; any future major earthquake close to the city would cause extensive sliding, possibly triggered in part by liquefaction. If shaking continued for several minutes, successive slides might progressively remove large portions of the delta and allow extensive land spreading and fracturing of Skagway River alluvium as much as several thousand feet landward from the shoreline.</p><p>7. Glacier surfaces commonly receive extensive snow avalanches and rockslides during seismic shaking. In the Skagway area, glaciers may be disrupted at their margins, and resulting blocked streams might form lakes in a few places. If these lakes drained suddenly, downstream areas would he flooded. No long-term effects, such as glacier expansion, are expected.</p><p>8. Ground- and surface-water levels often are affected during and after strong earthquake shaking. At Skagway, ground-water levels probably would be lowered, but there would be no permanent change in water quality. Earthquake-triggered landslides could dam the Skagway River; the sudden failure of the dams might cause severe flooding.</p><p>9. Waves generated by earthquakes include tsunamis, seiche waves, and waves caused by subaerial and submarine sliding and tectonic displacement of land. Damage in the Skagway area would depend on wave height, tidal stage, and warning time. Some waves triggered by subaerial and subaqueous slides have a strong possibility of reaching heights of as much as 60 feet--or possibly even higher. Tsunamis from the open ocean must travel 160 miles of fiords before reaching Skagway, which allows sufficient time for appraisal of expectable wave height and, if necessary, evacuation of the harbor area and other low-lying ground.</p><p>Geologic hazards other than those hazards associated with earthquakes include nonearthquake-induced subaerial and subaqueous slides, floods, and slow uplift (rebound) of land. Landslides of moderate size are known to have occurred from time to time during heavy rains such as those of September 1967. Subaqueous slides happen intermittently during the normal growth of deltas. Submarine cables on the floor of northern Taiya Inlet presumably were broken by such slides on September 10, 1927. Flooding by the Skagway River has inundated parts of the city many times, usually during heavy rains in the fall. Two floods were reported to have been caused by the sudden draining of glacier-dammed lakes. Dikes protect the city from many smaller floods, but heightening and broadening is needed to give full protection. Slow land uplift at Skagway, because of regional glacioisostatic rebound, averages 0.059 foot per year. On this basis, the shoreline theoretically shifted seaward 500 feet and the harbor shoaled 4.4 feet between 1897 and 1972.</p><p>It is recommended that future geologic study of the Skagway area include: detailed geologic mapping and collection of data on geologic materials, joints, faults, and slope stability; complete evaluation of earthquake probability and response of materials to shaking; and collection and evaluation of periodic soundings and sediment data from Skagway and Taiya deltas to assist in forecasting the stability of the delta front.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72454","usgsCitation":"Yehle, L.A., and Lemke, R.W., 1972, Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Skagway area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-454, Report: iv, 108 p.; 4 Plates: 35.77 x 18.67 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72454.","productDescription":"Report: iv, 108 p.; 4 Plates: 35.77 x 18.67 inches or smaller","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":427161,"rank":6,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-10.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427160,"rank":5,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-15.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427159,"rank":4,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427158,"rank":3,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427153,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":150379,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/report-thumb.jpg"}],"scale":"9600","country":"United States","state":"Alaska","city":"Skagway","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -135.3463249696411,\n              59.48810534833572\n            ],\n            [\n              -135.3463249696411,\n              59.40680330286153\n            ],\n            [\n              -135.22164285027563,\n              59.40680330286153\n            ],\n            [\n              -135.22164285027563,\n              59.48810534833572\n            ],\n            [\n              -135.3463249696411,\n              59.48810534833572\n            ]\n          ]\n        ],\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a74e4b07f02db6443d4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Yehle, Lynn A. yehle@usgs.gov","contributorId":3794,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Yehle","given":"Lynn","email":"yehle@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":173260,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Lemke, Richard Walter","contributorId":105280,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemke","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"Walter","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":173261,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
,{"id":12939,"text":"ofr6936 - 1969 - Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":12939,"text":"ofr6936 - 1969 - Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California","indexId":"ofr6936","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":5758,"text":"pp882 - 1976 - Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California","indexId":"pp882","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"title":"Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California"},"id":1}],"supersededBy":{"id":5758,"text":"pp882 - 1976 - Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California","indexId":"pp882","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"title":"Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California"},"lastModifiedDate":"2024-05-24T19:53:10.458712","indexId":"ofr6936","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"69-36","title":"Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California","docAbstract":"<p>The Baldwin Hills are located in the northwest part of the densely populated Los Angeles basin. They comprise one of several groups of isolated hills that extend along the northwest-trending Newport-Inglewood zone of folds and faults, a structural lineament identified with a series of very productive oil fields. In addition to being the site of the Inglewood oil field, these hills are the site of surface deformation that has been monitored for over 35 years. This record of deformation, which includes differential subsidence, horizontal displacements, and surface rupturing, forms one of the best documented examples of oilfield-associated surface deformation yet recognized. The deformation is described in detail, analyzed as to cause(s), and finally attributed largely or essentially entirely to the exploitation of the spatially-associated Inglewood oil field.</p><p>The Baldwin Hills are underlain by gently to moderately arched and conspicuously faulted Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks that overlie crystalline basement rocks at a depth of more than 10,000 feet. The Inglewood fault, a part of the northwest-trending Newport-Inglewood zone, diagonally transects the hills. Right-lateral displacements of 3,000-4,000 feet since middle or late Pliocene time and 1,500-2,000 feet during Quaternary time are indicated by offset structural and physio-graphic features; indications of vertical separations of up to about 200 feet during late Quaternary time occur locally.</p><p>Evidence of continuing deformation includes recognized seismicity and regional elevation changes. The M5-5 1/2 Inglewood earthquake of 1920, the largest local earthquake of record, is believed to have originated immediately southeast of the Baldwin Hills; it was apparently unassociated with surficial fault displacements. Leveling in and around the west and central Los Angeles basin has shown that lowland stations have been consistently subsiding, whereas foothill stations commonly have been rising. Several seemingly persistent basins of differential subsidence and a zone of positive movement, roughly coincident with the Newport-Inglewood zone, have also been identified in the northwest part of the basin.</p><p>A prominent, elliptically-shaped, northwest-trending subsidence bowl encompassing the northwest part of the Baldwin Hills, has been defined by repeated level circuits. Partial reconstruction of selected level circuits with respect to a common, relatively stable control point (Hollywood E-11), located on the edge of the subsidence bowl, has permitted evaluation of the subsidence since 1910 and 1911 at two points near the center of the bowl. Thus bench mark PBM 67 is estimated to have subsided approximately 4.324 feet between June 1910 and February 1963; and bench mark PBM 68 (the only bench mark within the subsidence bowl that was leveled prior to 1926 and has been repeatedly leveled since) subsided 3.846 feet between November 1911 and June 1962. Analysis of the available data indicates little if any elevation change at PBM 68 (or elsewhere throughout the Baldwin Hills-Inglewood area) associated with the Inglewood earthquake of 1920. Maximum subsidence of PBM 122 (which has remained very close to the center of subsidence since at . least 1950) between 1911 and 1963 is calculated to have been 5.67 feet.</p><p>Horizontal displacements (with respect to a north-south base line about 3 miles east of the hills) of six triangulation points within the subsidence bowl have been measured for various periods between 1934 and 1963. Displacements have been generally toward the center of subsidence and almost precisely perpendicular to the immediately adjacent isobases of equal elevation change. Maximum movement has been recorded at triangulation point Baldwin Aux, which was displaced 2.21 feet between 1934 and 1961; horizontal displacements of three additional points ranged from 0.95 foot to 1.85 feet between 1936 and 1961. Displacements of 0.10-0.29 foot were recorded at all six monuments during the period 1961-1963.</p><p>\"Earth cracks\" and surficial fault displacements were recognized in the Baldwin Hills at least as early as 1957. The cracks are relatively straight, generally continuous fractures confined to the structural block east of the Inglewood fault; they are concentrated in two areas centering on (1) the Baldwin Hills Reservoir and (2) the Stocker Street-LaBrea Avenue-Overhill Drive intersection. The cracks trend north to north-northeast and are nearly everywhere parallel to or coincident with minor faults and joints, and are generally orthogonal to radii emanating from the center of subsidence. Differential movement along the cracks has been almost entirely dip slip along steep to nearly vertical surfaces, and generally down-dropped toward the center of subsidence. Cumulative displacements have been as much as 6 or 7 inches. Rates of displacement have ranged widely, and the movement has generally occurred as creep or very small discrete jumps. A probable exception is the several inches of differential movement that is believed to have occurred along a crack through the floor of the Baldwin Hills Reservoir on or about December 14, 1963.</p><p>The contemporary surface movements are attributable to one or more of the following phenomena: (1). exploitation of the Inglewood oil field; (2) changes in the ground-water regimen; (3) compaction of sedimentary materials in response to surface loading; (4) tectonic activity.</p><p>The following considerations indicate that the differential subsidence is attributable largely or entirely to exploitation of the underlying Inglewood oil field: (1) the coincidence of the centers of the oil field, the producing structure, and the subsidence bowl; (2) the general correspondence between the pattern of subsidence and the outlines of the oil field; (3) the approximate coincidence between the initiation of production and the initiation of subsidence; (4) the generally linear relations between various measures of subsidence and liquid production from both the field as a whole and the exceptionally prolific Vickers zone in particular; (5) the sharp deceleration of subsidence in the eastern block of the field coincident with the initiation of full-scale water flooding there; (6) the many examples of oil fields In which both spatial and temporal associations between production and subsidence are recognized; (7) the many similarities of the subsidence-production relations in the Inglewood field to those in the Wilmington field, where the subsidence has been authoritatively attributed to oilfield&nbsp;operations; (8) the theoretical relation between subsidence or a tendency toward subsidence and increased effective pressure associated with underground fluid extraction.</p><p>Consideration of six possible explanations for the increasing rather than decreasing or constant rate of subsidence with respect to reservoir fluid pressure decline suggests that measured or calculated down-hole reservoir fluid pressure decline is non-representative of average or real fluid pressure decline away from producing wells. The near-linear relations between net-liquid production and subsidence are explained through analogy with a tightly confined artesian system of infinite areal extent, where production must derive from liquid expansion and/or reservoir compaction. Test data from compaction studies in two other oil fields yield estimates of ultimate compaction of the Vickers zone resulting from a total loss of fluid pressure; these estimates range over an order of magnitude. The best estimate, based on these data and considerations of late Cenozoic history in the Baldwin Hills area, is about 10 feet.</p><p>The centripetally-directed horizontal movements are considered attributable to exploitation of the Inglewood oil field on the basis of:<br>(1) their well-defined symmetrical and geometrical association with the differential subsidence; (2) the similarities between these associations and those developed in and around other subsiding oil fields; and (3) the mechanical compatibility of these movements with subsidence induced by the extraction of subsurface materials.</p><p>The earth cracks and surficial fault displacements are considered largely or entirely attributable to the exploitation of the Inglewood oil field on the basis of: (1) their spatial and temporal relations to both oil-field operations and the differential subsidence; (2) the similarities of these cracks and displacements to those generated in and around other oil fields and areas of subsurface materials extraction; and (3) surface strain patterns predicted from the measured vertical and horizontal surface movements. The cracks and displacements can i)e explained by an exploitation-based, elastic-rebound model which requires elastic compression of the sedimentary section in response to compaction-induced downdrag within those blocks around the periphery of the subsidence bowl. The measured displacements have been about one-quarter to one-half those predicted for a purely elastic system.</p><p>Analysis of: (1) the history of ground-water extraction within and around the Baldwin Hills; and (2) subsidence associated with water-level declines in sediments comparable with those in the Baldwin Hills, indicate that the surface movements can be no more than incidentally attributed to changes in ground-water conditions. Similarly, analysis of the history of natural and artificial changes in surface loading indicate that these movements are generally unassociated with changes in surface loading conditions.</p><p>Considerations of local geologic history and various tectonic associations indicate that it is very unlikely that the differential subsidence and horizontal movements are due to tectonic downwarping. There exists a far stronger prima facie argument for tectonic involvement in the earth cracking and associated fault displacements. This argument is disputed by; (1) the spatial and temporal relations of the earth cracks to, and their mechanical compatibility with, the nontectonic differential subsidence; (2) the absence of displacements on the Inglewood fault in conjunction with those along the conjugate earth cracks; (3) the probability that purely tectonic displaceMents would be characterized by oblique or strike slip; and (4) the absence of any clear temporal relation between crack growth and local seismicity, However, because as much as 10 percent of the local isobase gradient may be unexplained' by oil-field exploitation, a small fraction of this gradient, and thus the displacements among the southern group of cracks, may be attributable to tectonic activity. This fraction should have been insignificant in the presence of the strain pattern produced by nontectonic compaction of the underlying oil measures.</p><p>Because nearly all of the observed and measured surface movements can be fully explained as the products of oil-field operations, yet can be no more than incidentally attributed to changes in ground-water conditions, surface loading, or tectonic activity, we conclude that these movements are attributable largely or essentially entirely to the exploitation of the Inglewood oil field.</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr6936","usgsCitation":"Castle, R.O., and Yerkes, R.F., 1969, Recent surface movements in the Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles County, California: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 69-36, xviii, 185 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr6936.","productDescription":"xviii, 185 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":429278,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1969/0036/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":146998,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1969/0036/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","county":"Los Angeles County","otherGeospatial":"Baldwin Hills","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -118.38187677397389,\n              34.0348739886972\n            ],\n            [\n              -118.38187677397389,\n              33.97553856602411\n            ],\n            [\n              -118.30144514525205,\n              33.97553856602411\n            ],\n            [\n              -118.30144514525205,\n              34.0348739886972\n            ],\n            [\n              -118.38187677397389,\n              34.0348739886972\n            ]\n          ]\n        ],\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a7ee4b07f02db648569","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Castle, Robert O.","contributorId":22741,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Castle","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"O.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":166993,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Yerkes, R. 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,{"id":2354,"text":"wsp1654 - 1964 - Ground water for irrigation in the Snake River Basin in Idaho","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-24T18:32:01.922661","indexId":"wsp1654","displayToPublicDate":"1964-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1964","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1654","title":"Ground water for irrigation in the Snake River Basin in Idaho","docAbstract":"<p>The Snake River basin, in southern Idaho, upstream from the mouth of the Powder River in Oregon, includes more than 50 percent of the land area and 65 percent of the total population of the State. More than 2.5 million acres of land is irrigated ; irrigation agriculture and industry allied with agriculture are the basis of the economy of the basin. Most of the easily developed sources of surface water are fully utilized, and few storage sites remain where water could be made available to irrigate lands under present economic conditions. Because surface-water supplies have be come more difficult to obtain, use of ground water has increased greatly. At the present time (1959), about 600,000 acres of land is irrigated with ground water. Ground-water development has been concentrated in areas where large amounts of water are available beneath or adjacent to tracts of arable land and where the depth to water is not excessive under the current economy. Under these criteria, many of the most favorable areas already have been developed; however, tremendous volumes of water are still available for development. In some places, water occurs at depths considered near or beyond the limit for economic recovery, whereas in some other places, water is reasonably close to the surface but no arable land is available in the vicinity. In other parts of the basin large tracts of arable land are without available water supply. Thus the chief tasks in development of the ground-water resources include not only locating and evaluating ground-water supplies but also the planning necessary to bring the water to the land. Irrigation began in the 1860's ; at the present time more than 10 million acre feet of surface water, some of which is recirculated water, is diverted annually for irrigation of more than 2.5 million acres. Diversion of this large quantity of water has had a marked effect on the ground-water regimen. In some areas, the water table has risen more than 100 feet and the discharge of some springs has more than doubled. Large-scale development of ground water began after World War II, and it is estimated that in 1959 about 1,500,000 acre-feet of ground water was pumped for irrigation of the 600,000 acres irrigated wholly with ground water in addition to a substantial amount of ground water pumped to supplement surface-water supplies. Ground water is also the principal source of supply for municipal, industrial, and domestic use. The water regimen in the Snake River basin is greatly influenced by the geology. The rocks forming the mountains are largely consolidated rocks of low permeability; however, a fairly deep and porous subsoil has formed on them by decay and disintegration of the parent rock. Broad intermontane valleys and basins are partly filled with alluvial sand and gravel. The subsoil and alluvial materials are utilized very little as a source of water supply but are important as seasonal ground-water reservoirs because they store water during periods of high rainfall and snowmelt. Discharge from these reservoirs maintains stream flow during periods of surface runoff. Because these aquifers are fairly thin, they drain rapidly and are considerably depleted at the end of each dry cycle. The plain and plateau areas and tributary valleys, on the other hand, are underlain chiefly by rocks of high permeability and porosity. These rocks, mostly basaltic lava flows and alluvial materials, constitute a reservoir which fluctuates only slightly from season to season. Large amounts' of water are withdrawn from them for irrigation and other uses, and discharge from the Snake Plain aquifer is an important part of the total flow of the Snake River downstream from Hagerman Valley. The ultimate source of ground water in the basin is precipitation on the basin. In the mountainous areas, aquifers mostly are recharged directly by precipitation.&nbsp;</p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wsp1654","usgsCitation":"Mundorff, M.J., Crosthwaite, E., and Kilburn, C., 1964, Ground water for irrigation in the Snake River Basin in Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1654, vii, 224 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1654.","productDescription":"vii, 224 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":414716,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_24846.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":28283,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1654/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":137782,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1654/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Idaho","otherGeospatial":"Snake River basin","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -111.048,\n              45.217\n            ],\n            [\n              -117.213,\n              45.217\n            ],\n            [\n              -117.213,\n              42\n            ],\n            [\n              -111.048,\n              42\n            ],\n            [\n              -111.048,\n              45.217\n            ]\n          ]\n        ],\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ab0e4b07f02db66dc28","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mundorff, Maurice John","contributorId":41404,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mundorff","given":"Maurice","email":"","middleInitial":"John","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145067,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Crosthwaite, E. G.","contributorId":83098,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Crosthwaite","given":"E. G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145068,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Kilburn, Chabot","contributorId":83499,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kilburn","given":"Chabot","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145069,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}}
,{"id":47380,"text":"b1082F - 1960 - Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":43620,"text":"ofr5182 - 1951 - Geologic maps of the Northgate fluorspar district, Colorado","indexId":"ofr5182","publicationYear":"1951","noYear":false,"title":"Geologic maps of the Northgate fluorspar district, Colorado"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":47380,"text":"b1082F - 1960 - Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","indexId":"b1082F","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"chapter":"F","title":"Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":47380,"text":"b1082F - 1960 - Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","indexId":"b1082F","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"chapter":"F","title":"Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":33208,"text":"b1082 - 1962 - Contributions to economic geology, 1958","indexId":"b1082","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958"},"id":2}],"isPartOf":{"id":33208,"text":"b1082 - 1962 - Contributions to economic geology, 1958","indexId":"b1082","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-10-18T14:10:41","indexId":"b1082F","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1082","chapter":"F","title":"Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","docAbstract":"<p>The fluorspar deposits in the Northgate district, Jackson County, Colo., are among the largest in Western United States. The mines were operated intermittently during the 1920's and again during World War II, but production during these early periods of operation was not large. Mining was begun on a larger scale in 1951, and the district has assumed a prominent position among the fluorspar producers in the United States. </p><p>Within the Northgate district, Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks crop out largely in the Medicine Bow Mountains, and later sedimentary rocks underlie North Park and fill old stream valleys in the mountains. </p><p>The metamorphic rocks constitute a gneiss complex that formed under progressively changing conditions of regional metamorphism. They consist principally of hornblende-plagioclase gneiss (hornblende gneiss), quartz monzonite gneiss, pegmatite, biotite-garnet-quartz-plagioclase gneiss (biotite-garnet gneiss), hornblende-biotite-quartz-plagioclase gneiss (hornblende-biotite gneiss) and mylonite gneiss. </p><p>The igneous rocks comprise some local fine-grained dacite porphyry dikes near the west margin of the district, and a quartz monzonitic stock and associated dikes in the central and eastern parts of the district. </p><p>The sedimentary rocks in the district range in age from Permian to Recent. Folded Permian and Mesozoic rocks underlie the basin of North Park, and consist in sequence from oldest to youngest, of Satanka(?) shale (0-50 feet of brick-red shale) and Forelle(?) limestone (8-15 feet of pink to light-gray laminated limestone) of Permian age, Chugwater formation of Permian and Triassic age (690 feet of red silty shale and sandstone), Sundance formation of Late Jurassic age (145 feet of sandstone containing some shale and limestone), Morrison formation of Late Jurassic age (445 feet of variegated shale and minor sandstone and limestone), Dakota group as used by Lee (1927), now considered to be of Early Cretaceous age in this area (200-320 feet of pebbly sandstone, sandstone, and shale), Ben ton shale of Early and Late Cretaceous age (665 feet of dark-gray thin-bedded shale), Niobrara formation of Late Cretaceous age (865 feet of yellow to gray limy siltstone and shale), and Pierre shale of Late Cretaceous age (more than 60 feet of dark-gray fissile shale). Unconformities separate the Chugwater and Sundance formations, and the Morrison formation and the Dakota group.</p><p>Nonmarine strata of the White River formation of Oligocene age and the North Park formation of Miocene and Pliocene (?) age fill Tertiary valleys cut in the Precambrian rocks of the mountain areas, and Quaternary terrace gravel, alluvium, and dune sand mantle much of the floor of North Park. </p><p>The main outlines of the modern Rocky Mountains formed during the Laramide orogeny in late Mesozoic and early Tertiary time. Most of the Laramide structures that can be recognized in the Northgate district involve the sedimentary rocks underlying North Park which are folded into northwest-trending anticlines and synclines. The folds are open and in most the beds dip 60° or less. Yet many anticlines are cut by reverse faults of widely different trends and directions of offset. Transverse faults offset some of the folds, and the character of folding commonly is markedly different on opposing sides of these faults. The North Park basin is cut off on the north by the east-trending Independence Mountain fault, a north-dipping reverse fault along which hard Precambrian rocks have been thrust up across the trend of the earlier Laramide structures. The North Park basin is still a major structure where it is interrupted by the Independence Mountain fault, and the original basin must have extended much farther north. </p><p>Disrupted gradients at the base of pre-White River valleys suggest that the Northgate district and adjacent areas may have been deformed in middle Tertiary time, but the evidence is not conclusive. A more definite period of deformation took place in Pliocene time following deposition of the North Park formation. North Park strata in south-central North Park were folded into a northwest-trending syncline, and the central part of the Northgate district probably was warped up along a north- or northwestward-trending axis. </p><p>Four north- to northwestward-trending faults cut the Precambrian rocks and White River formation on Pinkham Mountain and the area to the southeast. Similar faults 2½ and 15 miles west of the Northgate district cut rocks of the North Park formation, and all probably formed during the Pliocene period of deformation. The known commercial fluorspar deposits are localized along the two larger faults of the Northgate district, and they have been studied in detail. </p><p>The White River formation in early Oligocene time covered a hilly terrain drained by southward-flowing streams. By late Miocene, the northward-flowing streams had cut to about the same levels reached by the pre-White River streams and had partly exhumed and modified the older terrain. During late Miocene and early Pliocene (?) time, the Northgate area was buried beneath the clays, sands, and gravels of the North Park formation. Subsequent erosion removed the higher part of the North Park formation, cut a surface of low relief across the exhumed Precambrian rocks, and removed all topographic evidence of the Pliocene period of deformation. The present courses of the major streams were superimposed across the buried terrains during this period of erosion. Rejuvenation during middle Pleistocene caused all major streams to become incised in sharp canyons. </p><p>Copper minerals occur in small concentrations in some of the pegmatite masses in the gneiss complex. The copper-rich masses rarely exceed a few feet in diameter and constitute only a small part of the associated pegmatite body.</p><p>Vermiculite is exposed in prospect pits and mine workings along the west margin of the Northgate district. All the venniculite that was seen is associated with small masses of horablendite, massive chlorite, or serpentinite where these masses are near or are cut by pegmatite bodies. Some of the deposits may be potential producers of commercial-grade vermiculite, but most are small and erratic in shape or grade.</p><p>Fluorspar is the main mineral commodity that has been produced from the Northgate district. It was deposited during two distinct periods of mineralization, but only the younger deposits have been productive. </p><p>Small bodies of silicified breccia containing minor coarsely crystalline fluorite occur along the Independence Mountain fault, and in a few places along other Laramide faults. The fluorspar is an integral part of the fault breccia and apparently was deposited while the enclosing fault was still active. </p><p>The largest deposits of fluorspar in the Northgate district occur along the late Tertiary (?) faults on Pinkham Mountain. The fluorspar consists typically of botryoidal layers that formed as successive encrustations along open fractures, or as finely granular aggregates replacing and cementing fault gouge and White River formation. Many incompletely filled cavities, called water courses, still exist. Fluorite is the principal vein material; fragments of country rock constitute the chief impurity although finely granular quartz or chalcedony is common locally. Soft powdery manganese oxide coats many fractures and in places is associated with a fine white clay. </p><p>Fluorspar was deposited in or adjacent to open spaces along the late Tertiary (?) faults. Fractures in hard granitic rocks tended to remain open after faulting and were the favored sites for fluorspar deposition; fractures in the less competent hornblende and hornblende-biotite gneiss and schist generally were tight and little fluorspar was deposited. The White River rocks, although soft, were permeable and were widely impregnated or replaced by fluorspar. </p><p>Both of the main vein zones are along faults that have predominant rightlateral strike-slip displacement. As they theoretically should be, the vein zones are narrower and contain less fluorspar where the containing fault is deflected to the left than where the fault is deflected to the right and the fractures remained open. </p><p>The crustified, vuggy structure of the fluorspar and the common association with chalcedony or finely granular quartz suggest deposition in a very shallow environment, but no direct evidence bearing on the depth at which the fluorspar formed was seen. Fluorspar was deposited throughout a vertical range of 600 feet or more on each of the main vein zones, and for a vertical range of 1,050 feet for the district as a whole. None of the deposits had been bottomed at the time this report was prepared. </p><p>Exploration at depth beneath known ore bodies is favorable for developing large tonnages of fluorspar. The best possibilities for finding new ore bodies near the surface are along the northwestern and southeastern parts of the Fluorine-Camp Creek vein zone where large bodies of granitic rocks are intersected by the fault. These areas are generally mantled by a thick overburden, and have been inadequately tested so far.</p>","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/b1082F","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Colorado State Geological Survey Board and the Colorado Metal Mining Fund Board","usgsCitation":"Steven, T., 1960, Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082, Report: v, 99 p.; 4 Plates: 33.80 x 32.33 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/b1082F.","productDescription":"Report: v, 99 p.; 4 Plates: 33.80 x 32.33 inches or smaller","startPage":"323","endPage":"422","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":100010,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-15.pdf","text":"Plate 15","size":"1.58 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 15"},{"id":100007,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-12.pdf","text":"Plate 12","size":"8.26 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 12"},{"id":100008,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-13.pdf","text":"Plate 13","size":"1.27 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 13"},{"id":100009,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-14.pdf","text":"Plate 14","size":"722 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 14"},{"id":172968,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":109304,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_20747.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"20747"},{"id":100006,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"8.19 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -106.33563995361328,\n              40.86965121139933\n            ],\n            [\n              -106.19556427001953,\n              40.86965121139933\n            ],\n            [\n              -106.19556427001953,\n              40.99855696412671\n            ],\n            [\n              -106.33563995361328,\n              40.99855696412671\n            ],\n            [\n              -106.33563995361328,\n              40.86965121139933\n            ]\n          ]\n        ]\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adce4b07f02db6861aa","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Steven, Thomas A.","contributorId":57529,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Steven","given":"Thomas A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235187,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":56119,"text":"ofr5862 - 1958 - History of natural flows--Kansas River","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-09-29T08:18:17","indexId":"ofr5862","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"58-62","title":"History of natural flows--Kansas River","docAbstract":"<p>Through its Water Resources Division, the United States Geological Survey has become the major water-resources historian for the nation. The Geological Survey's collection of streamflow records in Kansas began on a very small scale in 1895 in response to some early irrigation interest, Since that time the program has grown, and we now have about 21 350 station-years of record accumulated. A station-year of record is defined as a continuous record of flow collected at a fixed point for a period of one year. Volume of data at hand, however, is not in itself an, adequate measure of its usefullness. An important element in historical streamflow data which enhances its value as a tool for the prediction of the future is the length of continuous records available in the area being studied. The records should be of sufficient length that they may be regarded as a reasonable sample of what has gone before and may be expected in the future. Table 1 gives a graphical inventory of the available streamflow records in Kansas. It shows that, in general, there is a fair coverage of stations with records of about thirty-seven years in length, This is not a long period as history goes but it does include considerable experience with floods and droughts.</p><p>Although a large quantity of data on Kansas streamflow has been accumulated, hydrologists and planning engineers find that stream flow information for many areas of the State is considerably less than adequate. The problem of obtaining adequate coverage has been given careful study by the Kansas Water Resources Board in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey and a report entitled \"Development of A Balanced Stream-Gaging Program For Kansas\", has been published by the Board as Bulletin No. 4, That report presents an analysis of the existing stream-gaging program and recommendations for a program to meet the rapidly expanding needs for more comprehensive basic data.</p><p>The Kansas River is formed near Junction City, Kansas, by the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican Rivers, From that point the river flows eastward about 175 miles to Kansas City where it empties into the Missouri River. The basic history of its natural flow can be depicted in general by the records from three gaging stations. The one at Bonner Springs, about 21 miles upstream from the mouth, may be considered as representing the total outflow from the basin; the one at Ogden, about 8 miles downstream&nbsp;from the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican Rivers, may be considered as representing the combined contribution of those streams to the Kansas River flow; and the one at Topeka, being only about 16 river miles nearer to Ogden than to Bonner Springs, may be considered as representing flows at the mid-point along the river.<br></p>","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr5862","usgsCitation":"Leeson, E.R., 1958, History of natural flows--Kansas River: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 58-62, 5 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5862.","productDescription":"5 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181980,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0062/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":346209,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0062/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Kansas","otherGeospatial":"Kansas River","geographicExtents":"{\n  \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n  \"features\": [\n    {\n      \"type\": \"Feature\",\n      \"properties\": {},\n      \"geometry\": {\n        \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n        \"coordinates\": [\n          [\n            [\n              -94.56756591796875,\n              39.115144700901475\n            ],\n            [\n              -94.65545654296875,\n              39.15988184949157\n            ],\n            [\n              -94.80377197265625,\n              39.15988184949157\n            ],\n            [\n              -94.9383544921875,\n              39.138581990583525\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.01800537109374,\n              39.098094501249086\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.17730712890625,\n              39.098094501249086\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.504150390625,\n              39.14071226655259\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.701904296875,\n              39.14071226655259\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.90789794921875,\n              39.179046210512645\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.0919189453125,\n              39.23650795487107\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.31439208984375,\n              39.27053717095511\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.67144775390625,\n              39.22799807055236\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.75659179687499,\n              39.16201148082406\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.8115234375,\n              39.06824672852526\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.778564453125,\n              39.036252959636606\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.71539306640625,\n              39.05118518880596\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.59454345703125,\n              39.081040177486095\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.46820068359374,\n              39.12792964388499\n            ],\n            [\n              -96.17156982421874,\n              39.132190775931036\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.93536376953125,\n              39.027718840211605\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.745849609375,\n              39.01491572891582\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.58380126953125,\n              39.01704974180402\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.41351318359375,\n              38.974357249228206\n            ],\n            [\n              -95.06469726562499,\n              38.89530825492018\n            ],\n            [\n              -94.85595703125,\n              38.9380483825641\n            ],\n            [\n              -94.56756591796875,\n              39.115144700901475\n            ]\n          ]\n        ]\n      }\n    }\n  ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a54e4b07f02db62c076","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Leeson, Elwood R.","contributorId":18843,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Leeson","given":"Elwood","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254787,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}}
,{"id":70215452,"text":"70215452 - 1950 - Characteristics of marine uranium-bearing sedimentary rocks","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-04-06T15:07:37.747911","indexId":"70215452","displayToPublicDate":"1950-10-20T11:49:25","publicationYear":"1950","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Characteristics of marine uranium-bearing sedimentary rocks","docAbstract":"<p><span>Many marine sedimentary black shale and phosphorite formations contain 0.01 to 0.02 percent uranium, and one, the alum shale of Sweden, contains as much as 0.5 percent. The published fact that uranium is already being recovered on a laboratory scale from Swedish deposits forcefully suggests that similar deposits in the United States and possibly many other countries may prove to be an important future source of uranium.The marine uranium-bearing black shales are rich in organic matter and sulfides and contain little or no carbonate. The best are found in relatively thin formations of pre-Mesozoic age. The nature of the uranium-bearing mineral or compound is not known. In contrast, nonmarine black shales, as a group, are not uraniferous.All marine phosphorites tested thus far are uraniferous and so too are the phosphatic nodules found in many marine black shales. With some exceptions, the uranium increases in a general way with increase in phosphate content and is believed to be in the phosphate mineral. Like the black shales, the phosphorite formations are characteristically thin; many are associated with unconformities or, in other words, periods during which little else in the way of sediment accumulated.Significant concentrations of uranium in marine sediments other than black shales and phosphorites are thus far known only in beach placer deposits and the gold-bearing conglomerates of the Witwatersrand district, South Africa.Uranium may be found in other types of marine sediments on further prospecting, but especially promising are the sediments rich in organic matter, phosphate, or both, found in relatively thin formations believed to be the entire depositional products of long periods of geologic time. Such formations are most characteristic of those areas where, at the time of deposition, the adjacent land masses were so stable and low that the influx of clastic materials was small; the basin of deposition was large or of such configuration that fine-grained sediments could accumulate; and chemical conditions in the seawater prevented deposition of large amounts of carbonate.</span></p>","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.45.1.35","usgsCitation":"McKelvey, V., and Nelson, J.M., 1950, Characteristics of marine uranium-bearing sedimentary rocks: Economic Geology, v. 45, no. 1, p. 35-53, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.45.1.35.","productDescription":"19 p.","startPage":"35","endPage":"53","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":379550,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"45","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1950-01-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"McKelvey, Vincent E.","contributorId":106637,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McKelvey","given":"Vincent E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":802227,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Nelson, John Marshall","contributorId":17323,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nelson","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"Marshall","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":802228,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}}
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