The great Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, brought into sharp focus the need for engineering geologic studies in seismically active regions. As a result, nine communities in southeastern Alaska were selected for reconnaissance investigations as an integral part of an overall program to evaluate earthquake and other geologic hazards in most of the larger Alaska coastal communities. This report gives background information on the regional and other general factors that bear on these evaluations.
Southeastern Alaska, about 525 miles long and averaging about 125 miles in width, consists of a narrow mainland strip and numerous islands. For the most part, it is a region of rugged relief with numerous glaciers capping many of the higher mountainous areas and with long linear fiords forming the inland waterways. A maritime climate prevails with mild winters and cool summers. The southeastern part of the region receives the highest precipitation in the continental United States. Ketchikan, with a population of 6,994 in 1970, is the largest city. Geology and structure of the area are complex. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks crop out and range in age from Paleozoic to Tertiary. Surficial deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene age mantle many areas.
All of southeastern Alaska, except probably the highest peaks, was covered by glacier ice advances of late Pleistocene age. Major deglaciation was well advanced by 10,000 years ago--a time which approximately marks the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene. There followed a period of warm climate called the Hypsithermal, which in southeastern Alaska began 7,000-8,000 years ago and ended about 4,800-3,500 years ago. Glaciers in most places receded back of their present positions. The Hypsithermal was followed by an interval (termed Neoglaciation) of cooler climate and resurgence of glacier ice which continues to the present, although most glaciers are now rapidly receding.
During the past 10,000 years worldwide sea level has risen about 100 feet, but during the past 4,000 years it has risen only about 10 feet or about 0.03 inch per year. With sea level used as a datum, the amount of sea-level rise must be added to the apparent uplift of land for the time under consideration to determine the actual amount of land uplift.
The widespread presence of emergent marine deposits, several hundred feet above sea level, demonstrates that the land in southeastern Alaska has been uplifted since the last major deglaciation. The greatest known has been uplifted since the last major deglaciation. The greatest known uplift is in the vicinity of Juneau where glaciomarine deposits are present 750 feet above present sea level. Part of southeastern Alaska is presently undergoing one of the most rapid rates of uplift of any place in the world. The fastest emergence is occurring in the Glacier Bay area where the land is being uplifted relative to sea level approximately 3.9 cm per year. Most or all of the uplift appears to be due to rebound as a result of deglaciation.
Southeastern Alaska lies within the circum-Pacific earthquake belt, one of the world's greatest zones of seismic activity. During historic time, there have been five earthquakes in the region with magnitudes of 8 or greater, three with magnitudes of 7 to 8, eight with magnitudes of 6 to 7, more than 15 with magnitudes of 5 to 6, and about 140 recorded earthquakes with magnitudes smaller than 5 or of unassigned magnitudes. All of the earthquakes with magnitudes 8 or greater, and a large proportion of the others, appear to be related to the active Fairweather- Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or its western extension, the Chugach-St. Elias fault. Earthquake epicenters on the Denali fault system, the other major fault system in southeastern Alaska, are few in comparison. However, because high microearthquake activity has been recorded recently on this system and earthquakes of moderate size have occurred on some of its segments, the Denali fault system probably should not be dismissed as a relict fault system of no current tectonic importance. There are numerous other known faults, as well as lineaments that may be faults of varying degrees of tectonic activity in southeastern Alaska, adjacent Canada, and eastern Alaska. One of these elements is the Totschunda fault system, which connects with the Denali fault system in eastern Alaska; it has been very active during Holocene time but few historical earthquake epicenters appear to be related to it.
Both historical seismicity and geologic conditions, such as frequency and recency of faulting, must be considered together to permit an assessment of the future earthquake probability of an area. Data are too few for both factors for an accurate evaluation to be made of earthquake probability in southeastern Alaska. However, information compiled in the form of strain-release and seismic-zone maps permit some generalizations. Thus, it is tentatively concluded that most, if not all, of southeastern Alaska should be placed in seismic zone 3, a zone in which earthquakes of magnitude greater than 6 will occur from time to time and where there may be major damage to manmade structures.
Inferred effects from future earthquakes in southeastern Alaska include: (1) surface displacement along faults and other tectonic land-level changes, (2) ground shaking, (3) compaction, (4) liquefaction in cohesionless materials, (5) reaction of sensitive and quick clays, (6) water-sediment ejection and associated subsidence and ground fracturing, (7) earthquake-induced sub aerial slides and slumps, (8) earthquake induced subaqueous slides, (9) effects on glaciers and related features, (10) effects on ground water and stream flow, and (11) tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves. Because of the reconnaissance nature of our studies in the coastal communities and the sparsity of laboratory data on physical properties of geologic units in each area studied, the inferred effects must be largely empirical and generalized. Therefore, the inferences are based in large part upon the effects of past major earthquakes in Alaska and elsewhere, particularly upon the well-documented effects of the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964.
Buildings, highways, bridges, tunnels, harbor facilities, pipelines, canals, and other manmade structures may be severely damaged or destroyed by fault displacement or related tectonic land-level changes in southeastern Alaska. Direct damage from fault rupture would be restricted virtually to structures built directly athwart the fault. In California and Nevada, fault rupture almost always accompanies shocks of magnitude 6.5 or greater. The Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, and the Chilean earthquake of May 22, 1960, dramatically illustrated the severe adverse effects that can result from uplift or subsidence over a wide area.
The variable most responsible for the degree of shaking at any epicentral distance is the type of ground. Generally, shaking is considerably greater in poorly consolidated deposits than in hard bedrock, particularly if the deposits are water saturated. Severe shaking of alluvial deposits and manmade fill, with resultant heavy damage, is well documented from the records of many past earthquakes.
Damage commonly has been heavy as a result of ground settlement caused by compaction of loose sediments by shaking during an earthquake. This has been especially true where compaction was accompanied by tectonic downdrop of land, such as occurred during the Chilean earthquake of 1960 and the Alaska earthquake of 1964. Loosely emplaced manmade fill, deltaic deposits, beach deposits, and alluvial deposits may be susceptible to compaction in southeastern Alaska during a severe earthquake.
Liquefaction of sand and silt is a fairly common effect of large earthquakes. It was well illustrated at Niigata, Japan, during the earthquake of June 16, 1964, and resulted in extensive damage. When part of a sloping soil mass liquefies, the entire mass can undergo catastrophic failure and can flow as a high-density liquid. In southeastern Alaska, deltaic deposits probably would be most susceptible to liquefaction.
Sensitive and quick clays, which lose a considerable part of their strength when shaken, commonly fail during an earthquake and become rapid earthflows. Extensive studies were made of the sensitivity of the Bootlegger Cove Clay at Anchorage because of the marked loss of shear strength and dramatic failures of the deposits during the Alaska earthquake of 1964. If similar sensitive clays are present in some places in southeastern Alaska, they most likely are in some of the emergent fine-grained marine deposits; supporting data to confirm their presence, however, are largely lacking.
Records of some 50 major earthquakes show that in at least half of the instances water and sediment have been ejected from surficial deposits Water-sediment ejection and associated subsidence and ground fracturing commonly cause extensive damage to the works of man. Ejecta may fill basements and other low-lying parts of buildings. Agricultural land can be covered with a blanket of infertile soils, and small ponds can be filled or made shallow. In southeastern Alaska these phenomena are most likely to occur on valley floors, deltas, tidal flats, alluvial fans, swamps, and lakeshores.
Earthquake-induced sliding on land generally is confined to steep slopes but may take place in fine-grained deposits on moderately to nearly flat surfaces if the deposits are subject to liquefaction. A large rockslide triggered by the Lituya Bay, Alaska, earthquake of July 10, 1958, generated a wave that surged up the opposite wall of the inlet to a record height of 1,740 feet. During the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of August 17, 1959, a spectacular rockslide plunged into the Madison River canyon, buried 28 people, dammed the river, and created a large lake. Earthquake-records are replete with accounts of sliding of surficial deposits during moderate to large earthquakes. Most or all of the general factors that favor subaerial landsliding are present in southeastern Alaska.
Earthquake-induced subaqueous slides can produce adverse effects both nearshore and some distance offshore. Nearshore sliding may progress shoreward and destroy harbor facilities and other structures, commonly with substantial loss of life. Disastrous large submarine slides occurred along the fronts of deltas in Seward and Valdez during the Alaska earthquake of 1964. In similar fashion, the largest submarine slides in southeastern Alaska likely will be triggered along the larger delta fronts. Sliding farther offshore can constitute a threat to navigation because of changes in water depths. Also underwater sliding can break communication cables.
Glaciers were not greatly affected by the Alaska earthquake of 1964 despite the fact that about 20 percent of the area that underwent strong shaking is covered by ice. In contrast, the cataclysmic avalanche of ice and rock that fell from a high glacier-covered peak in Peru during the earthquake of May 31, 1970, produced devastating effects downvalley on man and his works in the form of mudflows. Most towns in southeastern Alaska are sufficiently distant from glaciers so as not be to directly affected.
Both the Alaska earthquake of 1964 and the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of 1959 significantly affected ground- and surface-water regimens. Water levels in some wells declined whereas in others flow increased. Some springs discharged at a rate three times as much as normal; flow of others decreased or stopped. Discharge of many streams increased markedly. Most or all of the effects described above could occur in parts of southeastern Alaska during future large earthquakes.
Tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves associated with large earthquakes commonly cause vast property damage and heavy loss of life. Tsunami effects can be devastating to coastal areas as far as many thousands of miles from their generation source. Seiche effects generally are confined to inland bodies of water or to relatively enclosed coastal bodies of water. Abnormal waves generated by submarine sliding or by subaerial sliding into water generally produce only local effects but may be highly devastating. Tsunami waves resulting from the Chilean earthquake of 1960 inflicted extensive damage and loss of life on coastal communities throughout a large part of southern Chile, and significant runups and damage were recorded in many places throughout the Pacific Ocean area. The tsunami waves generated by the Alaska earthquake of 1964 struck with devastating force along a broad stretch of the Alaska coast and produced heavy property damage and loss of life as far away as Crescent City, Calif. Seiche waves generated by that earthquake reached runup heights of 20-30 feet on some lakes in Alaska, and water-level fluctuations were recorded on streams, reservoirs, lakes, and swimming pools in States bordering the Gulf of Mexico. Waves generated by submarine sliding struck violently at a number of places during or immediately after the quake and were the major cause of loss of life and damage to property. Slide-generated waves probably would have a higher destructive potential in southeastern Alaska than either tsunami waves or seiche waves because of their possibly higher local runups and because they can hit the shores almost without warning during or immediately after an earthquake.
Nonearthquake-related geologic hazards, although generally far less dramatic than those related to earthquakes, tend to occur so much more frequently or persistently that their aggregate effects can be significant. Three kinds of geologic hazards of this type are discussed: (1) nonearthquake-induced landsliding and subaqueous sliding, (2) flooding, and (3) land uplift.
The potential for nonearthquake-triggered landsliding in southeastern Alaska ranges widely from place to place. Past sliding generally furnishes the clue in the prediction of where and in what materials future sliding will occur. Fast-moving rockslides, debris slides, and mudflows can be expected to occur from time to time on steep slopes and be highly destructive to highways, power plants, pipelines, buildings, and other facilities located on a slope or at its base. Present slow downslope movement of talus can be expected to continue at the same general rate unless conditions are changed by man or there are climatic changes. Snow and debris avalanches can be especially hazardous during winter months. Long-inactive landslides may be triggered into renewed activity or new slides may be created by man-induced modifications. Accelerated slope erosion and debris flows may follow large-scale clearing and cutting of timber. Subaqueous sliding can be expected to occur periodically along fronts of deltas and on other oversteepened underwater slopes.
Floods have been common in parts of southeastern Alaska because of heavy precipitation and rapid runoff from steep slopes with resulting heavy damage to roads and other facilities. Continued damage can be expected in the future unless more remedial measures are taken.
Current uplift of land in southeastern Alaska, although probably not affecting man significantly in a short period of time, may have some adverse long-term effects. These long-term effects should be borne in mind when facilities such as docks and boat harbors are constructed on or near the shore, where there is a critical relation between height of land and water.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72230","usgsCitation":"Lemke, R.W., and Yehle, L.A., 1972, Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-230, ii, 99 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72230.","productDescription":"ii, 99 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":425551,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0230/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":147832,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0230/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United 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Richard Walter","contributorId":105280,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemke","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"Walter","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":169813,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Yehle, Lynn A. yehle@usgs.gov","contributorId":3794,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Yehle","given":"Lynn","email":"yehle@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":169812,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":15187,"text":"ofr72268 - 1972 - Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":15187,"text":"ofr72268 - 1972 - Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea","indexId":"ofr72268","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"title":"Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":70010948,"text":"70010948 - 1975 - Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea","indexId":"70010948","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"title":"Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea"},"id":1}],"supersededBy":{"id":70010948,"text":"70010948 - 1975 - Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea","indexId":"70010948","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"title":"Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea"},"lastModifiedDate":"2023-07-14T18:57:24.86096","indexId":"ofr72268","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-268","title":"Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea","docAbstract":"A reconnaissance of surface and subsurface sediments to a maximum depth of 244 feet below the sea floor shows that natural mercury anomalies from 0.2 to 1.3 ppm have been present in northeastern Bering Sea since early Pliocene. The anomalies and mean values are highest in modern beach (maximum 1.3 and mean 0.22 ppm Hg) and nearshore subsurface gravels (maximum 0.6 and mean .06 ppm Hg) along the highly mineralized Seward Peninsula and in organic rich silt (maximum 0.16 and mean 0.10 ppm Hg) throughout the region; the mean values are lowest in offshore sands (0.03 ppm Hg). Although gold mining may be partially responsible for high mercury levels in the beaches near Nome, Alaska, equally high or greater concentrations of mercury occur in ancient glacial sediments immediately offshore (0.6 ppm) and in modern unpolluted beach sediments at Bluff (0.45 - 1.3 ppm); this indicates that the contamination effects of mining may be no greater than natural concentration processes in the Seward Peninsula region. The background content of mercury (0.03) throughout the central area of northeastern Bering Sea is similar to that elsewhere in the world. The low mean values (0.04 ppm) even immediately offshore from mercury-rich beaches, suggests that in the surface sediments of northeastern Bering Sea, the highest concentrations are limited to the beaches near mercury sources; occasionally, however, low mercury anomalies occur offshore in glacial drift derived from mercury source regions of Chukotka and Seward Peninsula and reworked by Pleistocene shoreline processes. The minimal values offshore may be attributable to beach entrapment of heavy minerals containing mercury and/or dilution effects of modern sedimentation.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72268","collaboration":"This report is preliminary and has not been edited or reviewed for conformity with Geological Survey standards","usgsCitation":"Nelson, C.H., Pierce, D., Leong, K., and Wang, F., 1972, Mercury distribution in ancient and modern sediment of northeastern Bering Sea: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-268, 29 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72268.","productDescription":"29 p.","costCenters":[{"id":387,"text":"Mineral Resources Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":418963,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0268/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":148973,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0268/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Bering Sea","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -174.52966588571758,\n 64.07996762645567\n ],\n [\n -174.52966588571758,\n 53.979342251454085\n ],\n [\n -157.99607380152727,\n 53.979342251454085\n ],\n [\n -157.99607380152727,\n 64.07996762645567\n ],\n [\n -174.52966588571758,\n 64.07996762645567\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a4ae4b07f02db624bcb","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nelson, C. Hans","contributorId":34909,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nelson","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"Hans","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170708,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Pierce, D.E.","contributorId":88083,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pierce","given":"D.E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170709,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Leong, Kam","contributorId":103660,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Leong","given":"Kam","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170710,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Wang, F.F.","contributorId":32797,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wang","given":"F.F.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170707,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":16672,"text":"ofr72454 - 1972 - Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Skagway area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-03-27T17:56:09.862376","indexId":"ofr72454","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-454","title":"Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Skagway area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","docAbstract":"A program to study the engineering geology of most of the larger Alaska coastal communities and to evaluate their earthquake and other geologic hazards was started promptly after the 1964 Alaska earthquake; this report is a product of that program. Field-study methods were largely reconnaissance, and thus the interpretations in the report are subject to revision as further information becomes available. The report provides broad guidelines for planners and engineers when considering geologic factors during preparation of land-use plans. The use of this information should lead to minimizing future loss of life and property, especially during major earthquakes.
Skagway was established in 1897 as a seaport near the head of Taiya Inlet fiord in the northern part of southeastern Alaska. Rugged mountains, steep-walled valleys, fiords, and numerous glaciers and icefields characterize the landscape of the area. Valley floors are narrow and most carry large streams, which end in tidewater deltas. Skagway is situated on the delta and lower valley floor of the Skagway River.
Glaciers became vastly enlarged during the Pleistocene Epoch and presumably covered the area at least several times. The last major deglaciation probably occurred about 10,000 years ago. Subsequently, there was minor expansion and then partial retreat of glaciers; land rebound because of glacial melting is still going on today.
Bedrock is composed predominantly of plutonic intrusive rocks, chiefly quartz diorite and granodiorite, some metamorphic rocks and a few dikes are present. Most bedrock is of Jurassic and Cretaceous age.
An assortment of surficial deposits of Quaternary age form the valley bottoms and locally part of the valley walls. Thick deposits of sand and gravel have accumulated as deltas at the heads of fiords and as alluvium in the main stream valleys; deposits may be as much as S8S feet thick at Skagway. Locally, thin deposits mantle some of the steep bedrock slopes and also form some moderately to gently sloping ground. Manmade fill covers much of the top of the delta and floor of the Skagway valley. The fill is composed chiefly of gravel and sand. Quarried blocks of granodiorite are used as riprap to face river dikes and on fill areas exposed to waves of Taiya Inlet.
The geologic structure of the area is imperfectly known. However, it appears that plutonic rocks intruded metamorphic rocks in Jurassic and Cretaceous time. Extensive faulting is strongly indicated by the strikingly linear or curvilinear pattern of fiords and many large and small valleys, but no major faults have been positively identified because of concealment by water or surficial deposits. Inferred faults include those coincident with the lower Skagway valley, Taiya Inlet-Taiya valley, and the Katzehin River delta-Upper Dewey Lake. Principal fault movements probably occurred in middle Tertiary time but some movement might have been in late Tertiary or possibly early Quaternary time. Local faults appear to join the Chilkat River fault, a segment of the important Denali fault system, one of the major tectonic elements of southeastern Alaska. One fault segment of this system shows evidence of movement within the last several hundred years. Southeastern Alaska's other major fault system is the active Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system'near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. This fault system passes to within about 100 miles of Skagway. At its northwest end the fault system merges with the Chugach-St. Elias fault.
One hundred twenty-two earthquakes, some of them strong, have been felt or possibly felt at Skagway during the years 1898 through 1969. The closest large earthquake (magnitude about 8) causing some damage at Skagway occurred July 10, 1958. Its epicenter was about 100 miles to the southwest. Other earthquakes, as much as 150 miles away, also have caused slight to moderate damage. The closest instrumentally recorded earthquake (magnitude 6) had its epicenter about 30 miles to the west of Skagway.
Most earthquakes in southeastern Alaska have occurred southwest, west, or northwest of Skagway, near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. They appear to be related to movement along the Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or the Chugach-St. Elias fault. Most have had their epicenters offshore. Some earthquakes may be related to movement at depth along the Denali fault system.
The probability of destructive earthquakes at Skagway is unknown because the tectonics of the region have not been studied in detail. However, on the basis of the seismic record and limited tectonic evidence, we suggest that sometime in the future an earthquake of at least magnitude 6 probably will occur very close to the city, a magnitude 7 earthquake might occur in the general area, and an earthquake of magnitude 8 probably will occur at some distance to the southwest, west, or northwest.
Effects from nearby large earthquakes could cause extensive damage at Skagway. Nine principal effects are considered.
1. Surface displacement. Displacement of ground caused by fault movement would affect only structures built athwart the fault. However, a sudden tectonic uplift of land of as much as a few feet might affect a wide area and necessitate extensive dredging and wharf rebuilding. On the other hand, a subsidence of several feet would allow tidewater to reach inland and flood part of the harbor facilities and the business district.
2. Ground shaking. Because intensity of ground shaking during earthquakes largely depends on type and water content of the geologic material being shaken, the geologic materials are separated into three categories. Those considered susceptible to strongest shaking are grouped into category 1 (containing materials that are saturated, loose, and of medium- to fine-grain sizes); those of intermediate susceptibility in category 2; and those least susceptible to shaking in category 3.
3. Compaction of some medium-grained sediments during strong earthquake shaking could cause local settling of alluvial and deltaic surfaces. Also, some manmade fills near the harbor might undergo marked differential settling.
4. Liquefaction of saturated beds of uniform, fine sand commonly occurs during strong earthquakes. Few such beds, however, are positively identified at Skagway; some may occur within deltaic and alluvial deposits. If present, these beds might liquefy and cause local settling or trigger landslides.
5. Ejection of water-sediment mixtures from earthquake-induced fractures or from point sources, plus some associated ground subsidence, is common during major earthquakes where saturated sand and fine gravel deposits are confined beneath generally impermeable beds. Some alluvial and deltaic deposits at Skagway probably are susceptible to these processes. Locally, ejecta might cover roads and areas between buildings and fill low-lying areas. Associated ground fracturing might damage roadways, foundations of buildings, and other facilities.
6. Subaerial and subaqueous slides occur frequently during earthquakes. Saturated loose sediments on steep slopes are especially susceptible to sliding. During a major earthquake, surficial deposits forming such slopes along the southeast side of the Skagway valley probably would be subject to sliding or earthflowing on an extensive scale. Some sliding might extend onto the valley floor and damage or destroy buildings and part of the railroad. Rockfalls would be numerous and locally very large rockslides might occur.
Subaqueous sliding of the Skagway delta is potentially the most damaging of earthquake effects. Sliding may have occurred there during the earthquake of September 16, 1899; any future major earthquake close to the city would cause extensive sliding, possibly triggered in part by liquefaction. If shaking continued for several minutes, successive slides might progressively remove large portions of the delta and allow extensive land spreading and fracturing of Skagway River alluvium as much as several thousand feet landward from the shoreline.
7. Glacier surfaces commonly receive extensive snow avalanches and rockslides during seismic shaking. In the Skagway area, glaciers may be disrupted at their margins, and resulting blocked streams might form lakes in a few places. If these lakes drained suddenly, downstream areas would he flooded. No long-term effects, such as glacier expansion, are expected.
8. Ground- and surface-water levels often are affected during and after strong earthquake shaking. At Skagway, ground-water levels probably would be lowered, but there would be no permanent change in water quality. Earthquake-triggered landslides could dam the Skagway River; the sudden failure of the dams might cause severe flooding.
9. Waves generated by earthquakes include tsunamis, seiche waves, and waves caused by subaerial and submarine sliding and tectonic displacement of land. Damage in the Skagway area would depend on wave height, tidal stage, and warning time. Some waves triggered by subaerial and subaqueous slides have a strong possibility of reaching heights of as much as 60 feet--or possibly even higher. Tsunamis from the open ocean must travel 160 miles of fiords before reaching Skagway, which allows sufficient time for appraisal of expectable wave height and, if necessary, evacuation of the harbor area and other low-lying ground.
Geologic hazards other than those hazards associated with earthquakes include nonearthquake-induced subaerial and subaqueous slides, floods, and slow uplift (rebound) of land. Landslides of moderate size are known to have occurred from time to time during heavy rains such as those of September 1967. Subaqueous slides happen intermittently during the normal growth of deltas. Submarine cables on the floor of northern Taiya Inlet presumably were broken by such slides on September 10, 1927. Flooding by the Skagway River has inundated parts of the city many times, usually during heavy rains in the fall. Two floods were reported to have been caused by the sudden draining of glacier-dammed lakes. Dikes protect the city from many smaller floods, but heightening and broadening is needed to give full protection. Slow land uplift at Skagway, because of regional glacioisostatic rebound, averages 0.059 foot per year. On this basis, the shoreline theoretically shifted seaward 500 feet and the harbor shoaled 4.4 feet between 1897 and 1972.
It is recommended that future geologic study of the Skagway area include: detailed geologic mapping and collection of data on geologic materials, joints, faults, and slope stability; complete evaluation of earthquake probability and response of materials to shaking; and collection and evaluation of periodic soundings and sediment data from Skagway and Taiya deltas to assist in forecasting the stability of the delta front.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72454","usgsCitation":"Yehle, L.A., and Lemke, R.W., 1972, Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Skagway area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-454, Report: iv, 108 p.; 4 Plates: 35.77 x 18.67 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72454.","productDescription":"Report: iv, 108 p.; 4 Plates: 35.77 x 18.67 inches or smaller","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":427161,"rank":6,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-10.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427160,"rank":5,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-15.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427159,"rank":4,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427158,"rank":3,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/figure-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":427153,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":150379,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0454/report-thumb.jpg"}],"scale":"9600","country":"United States","state":"Alaska","city":"Skagway","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -135.3463249696411,\n 59.48810534833572\n ],\n [\n -135.3463249696411,\n 59.40680330286153\n ],\n [\n -135.22164285027563,\n 59.40680330286153\n ],\n [\n -135.22164285027563,\n 59.48810534833572\n ],\n [\n -135.3463249696411,\n 59.48810534833572\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a74e4b07f02db6443d4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Yehle, Lynn A. yehle@usgs.gov","contributorId":3794,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Yehle","given":"Lynn","email":"yehle@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":173260,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Lemke, Richard Walter","contributorId":105280,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemke","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"Walter","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":173261,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":5840,"text":"pp506B - 1972 - A rainfall-runoff simulation model for estimation of flood peaks for small drainage basins","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:55","indexId":"pp506B","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"506","chapter":"B","title":"A rainfall-runoff simulation model for estimation of flood peaks for small drainage basins","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. 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Off.,","doi":"10.3133/pp506B","usgsCitation":"Dawdy, D., Lichty, R.W., and Bergmann, J.M., 1972, A rainfall-runoff simulation model for estimation of flood peaks for small drainage basins: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 506, 27 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp506B.","productDescription":"27 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":117909,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0506b/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":32599,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0506b/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b1ae4b07f02db6a8710","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Dawdy, D.R.","contributorId":99956,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dawdy","given":"D.R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151662,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Lichty, Robert W.","contributorId":7697,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lichty","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151660,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Bergmann, James M.","contributorId":12471,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bergmann","given":"James","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151661,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":5770,"text":"pp796 - 1972 - Structural and stratigraphic framework, and spatial distribution of permeability of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, North Carolina to New York","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-02-08T22:46:52.726017","indexId":"pp796","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"796","title":"Structural and stratigraphic framework, and spatial distribution of permeability of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, North Carolina to New York","docAbstract":"This report describes and interprets the results of a detailed subsurface mapping program undertaken in that part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain which extends from the South Carolina and North Carolina border through Long Island, N.Y. Data obtained from more than 2,200 wells are analyzed. Seventeen chronostratigraphic units are mapped in the subsurface. They range in age from Jurassic(?) to post-Miocene. The purpose of the mapping program was to determine the external and internal geometry of mappable chronostratigraphic units and to derive and construct a permeability-distribution network for each unit based upon contrasts in the textures and compositions of its contained sediments.
The report contains a structure map and a combined isopach, lithofacies, and permeability-distribution map for each of the chronostratigraphic units delineated in the subsurface. In addition, it contains a map of the top of the basement surface. These maps, together with 36 stratigraphic cross sections, present a three-dimensional view of the regional subsurface hydrogeology. They provide focal points of reference for a discussion of regional tectonics, structure, stratigraphy, and permeability distribution. Taken together and in chronologic sequence, the maps constitute a detailed sedimentary model, the first such model to be constructed for the middle Atlantic Coastal Plain.
The chronostratigraphic units mapped record a structural history dominated by lateral and vertical movement along a system of intersecting hinge zones. Taphrogeny, related to transcurrent faulting, is the dominant type of deformation that controlled the geometry of the sedimentary model.
Twelve of the seventeen chronostratigraphic units mapped have depositional alinements and thickening trends that are independent of the present-day configuration of the underlying basement surface. These 12 units, classified as genetically unrooted units, are assigned to a first-order tectonic stage. A structural model is proposed whose alinements of positive and negative structural features are accordant with the depositional geometry of the chronostratigraphic units assigned to this tectonic stage. The dominant features of the structural model are northeast-plunging half grabens arranged en echelon and bordered by northeast-plunging fault-block anticlines. Tension-type hinge zones that strike north lie athwart the half grabens.
Five of the seventeen chronostratigraphic units mapped have depositional alinements and thickening trends that are accordant with the present-day configuration of the underlying basement surface. These five units, classified as genetically rooted units, are assigned to a second-order tectonic stage. A structural model is proposed whose alinements of positive and negative features are accordant with the depositional geometry of the chronostratigraphic units assigned to this tectonic stage. The dominant feature of this model is a graben that stands tangential to southeast-plunging asymmetrical anticlines. Tension-type hinge zones that strike northeast lie athwart the graben.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/pp796","usgsCitation":"Brown, P.M., Miller, J.A., and Swain, F.M., 1972, Structural and stratigraphic framework, and spatial distribution of permeability of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, North Carolina to New York: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 796, Report: v, 79 p.; 59 Plates: 57.00 × 38.00 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp796.","productDescription":"Report: v, 79 p.; 59 Plates: 57.00 × 38.00 inches or smaller","costCenters":[{"id":13634,"text":"South Atlantic Water Science 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A.","contributorId":49772,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miller","given":"James","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151555,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Swain, Frederick Morrill","contributorId":58637,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Swain","given":"Frederick","email":"","middleInitial":"Morrill","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151556,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":3582,"text":"cir672 - 1972 - Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-18T22:06:11","indexId":"cir672","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"672","title":"Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system","docAbstract":"The proposed trans-Alaska oil pipeline, which would traverse the state north to south from Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast to Valdez on Prince William Sound, will be subject to serious earthquake hazards over much of its length. To be acceptable from an environmental standpoint, the pipeline system is to be designed to minimize the potential of oil leakage resulting from seismic shaking, faulting, and seismically induced ground deformation. \r\n\r\nThe design of the pipeline system must accommodate the effects of earthquakes with magnitudes ranging from 5.5 to 8.5 as specified in the 'Stipulations for Proposed Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System.' This report characterizes ground motions for the specified earthquakes in terms of peak levels of ground acceleration, velocity, and displacement and of duration of shaking. \r\n\r\nPublished strong motion data from the Western United States are critically reviewed to determine the intensity and duration of shaking within several kilometers of the slipped fault. For magnitudes 5 and 6, for which sufficient near-fault records are available, the adopted ground motion values are based on data. For larger earthquakes the values are based on extrapolations from the data for smaller shocks, guided by simplified theoretical models of the faulting process.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir672","usgsCitation":"Page, R.A., Boore, D., Joyner, W.B., and Coulter, H., 1972, Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 672, iii, 23 p. :illus. ;27 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir672.","productDescription":"iii, 23 p. :illus. ;27 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":30613,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0672/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":117122,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0672/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ab0e4b07f02db66dcf7","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Page, Robert A.","contributorId":17207,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Page","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147196,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Boore, D.M. 0000-0002-8605-9673","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8605-9673","contributorId":64226,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Boore","given":"D.M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147198,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Joyner, W. B.","contributorId":70746,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Joyner","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147199,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Coulter, H.W.","contributorId":34490,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Coulter","given":"H.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147197,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":23465,"text":"ofr72192 - 1972 - Stream depletion factors, Arkansas River valley, southeastern Colorado; A basis for evaluating plans for conjunctive use of ground and surface water","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-02-06T13:25:21","indexId":"ofr72192","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-192","title":"Stream depletion factors, Arkansas River valley, southeastern Colorado; A basis for evaluating plans for conjunctive use of ground and surface water","docAbstract":"The Arkansas River valley is a stream-aquifer system that consists of the Arkansas River and the associated valley-fill deposits. The hydrology, geology, and water-resources development in the valley have been described by Moore and Wood (1967). The history of delivery of irrigation water by canals indicates that the supply has been inadequate during some seasons and some years. The shortage can be reduced by carefully designed conjunctive use of ground and surface water. An analog model of the Arkansas River valley in Colorado was constructed to facilitate such designs (Moore and Wood, 1967).
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72192","issn":"0094-9140","usgsCitation":"Jenkins, C., and Taylor, O., 1972, Stream depletion factors, Arkansas River valley, southeastern Colorado; A basis for evaluating plans for conjunctive use of ground and surface water: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-192, Report: ii, 8 p.; 4 Plates: 40.92 x 22.26 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72192.","productDescription":"Report: ii, 8 p.; 4 Plates: 40.92 x 22.26 inches or smaller","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":52776,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0192/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":157451,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0192/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":52777,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0192/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":52778,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0192/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":52779,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0192/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":52780,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0192/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","otherGeospatial":"Arkansas River Valley","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[-102.7445,37.6428],[-103.0766,37.6417],[-103.183,37.6424],[-103.2917,37.6426],[-103.4039,37.6423],[-103.5092,37.6432],[-103.5778,37.6432],[-103.6016,37.6437],[-103.8109,37.644],[-103.8929,37.644],[-103.9661,37.6439],[-104.0591,37.6436],[-104.0597,37.7316],[-104.3518,37.8148],[-104.3889,37.8248],[-104.4978,37.8556],[-104.6074,37.886],[-104.6527,37.8982],[-104.7175,37.8949],[-104.9375,37.8834],[-104.9545,37.8822],[-104.9737,37.881],[-105.0017,37.8794],[-105.0041,37.8794],[-105.0093,37.879],[-105.0122,37.8799],[-105.0209,37.8859],[-105.0313,37.8919],[-105.0295,37.8964],[-105.03,37.9],[-105.0346,37.9055],[-105.0468,37.9115],[-105.0474,37.9967],[-105.0481,38.0855],[-105.0481,38.173],[-105.0483,38.202],[-105.0487,38.2582],[-104.9391,38.2587],[-104.9402,38.3448],[-104.9392,38.4178],[-104.939,38.43],[-104.9397,38.5003],[-104.9427,38.5003],[-104.943,38.5175],[-104.8295,38.5183],[-104.736,38.5183],[-104.7171,38.5186],[-104.6071,38.5187],[-104.4971,38.5192],[-104.3759,38.52],[-104.2836,38.5201],[-104.2794,38.5205],[-104.2759,38.5204],[-104.1629,38.5215],[-104.054,38.523],[-103.9411,38.523],[-103.8328,38.523],[-103.7228,38.5223],[-103.6116,38.5225],[-103.6118,38.5171],[-103.5089,38.5159],[-103.508,38.4366],[-103.5066,38.3409],[-103.5019,38.3408],[-103.5004,38.2646],[-103.3972,38.2647],[-103.2787,38.2649],[-103.1691,38.2647],[-103.0571,38.2647],[-102.741,38.2654],[-102.6154,38.2661],[-102.5075,38.2662],[-102.396,38.2662],[-102.2858,38.2665],[-102.1749,38.2668],[-102.0443,38.2676],[-102.0443,38.2627],[-102.0432,37.7384],[-102.043,37.6429],[-102.089,37.643],[-102.199,37.6429],[-102.3071,37.6435],[-102.4182,37.6432],[-102.5281,37.6432],[-102.6363,37.6435],[-102.7445,37.6428]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Bent\",\"state\":\"CO\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b16e4b07f02db6a52cf","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Jenkins, C.T.","contributorId":106099,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jenkins","given":"C.T.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":190153,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Taylor, O.J.","contributorId":71584,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Taylor","given":"O.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":190152,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":3372,"text":"cir650 - 1972 - Energy resources of the United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-18T22:05:59","indexId":"cir650","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"650","title":"Energy resources of the United States","docAbstract":"Estimates are made of United States resources of coal, petroleum liquids, natural gas, uranium, geothermal energy, and oil from oil shale. The estimates, compiled by specialists of the U.S. Geological Survey, are generally made on geologic projections of favorable rocks and on anticipated frequency of the energy resource in the favorable rocks. Accuracy of the estimates probably ranges from 20 to 50 percent for identified-recoverable resources to about an order of magnitude for undiscovered-submarginal resources. \r\n\r\nThe total coal resource base in the United States is estimated to be about 3,200 billion tons, of which 200-390 billion tons can be considered in the category identified and recoverable. More than 70 percent of current production comes from the Appalachian basin where the resource base, better known than for the United States as a whole, is about 330 billion tons, of which 22 billion tons is identified and recoverable. Coals containing less than 1 percent sulfur are the premium coals. These are abundant in the western coal fields, but in the Appalachian basin the resource base for low-sulfur coal is estimated to be only a little more than 100 billion tons, of which 12 billion tons is identified and recoverable. \r\n\r\nOf the many estimates of petroleum liquids and natural-gas resources, those of the U.S. Geological Survey are the largest because, in general, our estimates include the largest proportion of favorable ground for exploration. We estimate the total resource base for petroleum liquids to be about 2,900 billion barrels, of which 52 billion barrels is identified and recoverable. Of the total resource base, some 600 billion barrels is in Alaska or offshore from Alaska, 1,500 billion barrels is offshore from the United States, and 1,300 billion barrels is onshore in the conterminous United States. Identified-recoverable resources of petroleum liquids corresponding to these geographic units are 11, 6, and 36 billion barrels, respectively. \r\n\r\nThe total natural-gas resource of the United States is estimated to be about 6,600 trillion cubic feet, of which 290 trillion cubic feet is identified and recoverable. In geographic units comparable to those for petroleum liquids, the resource bases are 1,400, 3,400, and 2,900 trillion cubic feet, and the identified-recoverable resources are 31, 40, and 220 trillion cubic feet, respectively. \r\n\r\nUranium resources in conventional deposits, where uranium is the major product, are estimated at 1,600,000 tons of U3O8, of which 250,000 tons is identified and recoverable. A potential byproduct resource of more than 7 million tons of U3O8, is estimated for phosphate rock, but none of this resource is recoverable under present economic conditions. \r\n\r\nThe resources of heat in potential geothermal energy sources are poorly known. The total resource base for the United States is certainly greater than 10 22 calories, of which only 2.5 ? 10 18 calories can be considered identified and recoverable at present. \r\n\r\nOil shale is estimated to contain 26 trillion barrels of oil. None of this resource is economic at present, but if prices increase moderately, 160-600 billion barrels of this oil could be shifted into the identified-recoverable category.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir650","usgsCitation":"Theobald, P., Schweinfurth, S.P., and Duncan, D.C., 1972, Energy resources of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 650, iii, 27 p. :illus. ;26 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir650.","productDescription":"iii, 27 p. :illus. ;26 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":30382,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0650/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":124683,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0650/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a13e4b07f02db6022a2","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Theobald, P. K.","contributorId":45293,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Theobald","given":"P. K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146738,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schweinfurth, Stanley P.","contributorId":99123,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schweinfurth","given":"Stanley","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146739,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Duncan, Donald Cave","contributorId":27427,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Duncan","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"Cave","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146737,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":2615,"text":"wsp1663G - 1972 - Ground-water in the Teresina-Campo Maior area, Piaui, Brazil","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:28","indexId":"wsp1663G","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1663","chapter":"G","title":"Ground-water in the Teresina-Campo Maior area, Piaui, Brazil","docAbstract":"The Teresina-Campo Maior area lies in a presently developing farming and grazing region near the margin of drought-prone northeast Brazil where irrigated farming offers the best potential for economic development. The area comprises 9,700 square kilometers largely of catinga-covered tabular uplands which are drained by the perennial Rio Parnatba. The climate is hot and humid most of the year but with distinct wet and dry seasons. Temperature extremes range from 20?C to 39?C and the annum rainfall averages 1,200 millimeters. \r\n\r\nThe area's ground-water reservoir is contained chiefly in sandstone aquifers of six westward-dipping sedimentary rock formations, all part of the Maranhao sedimentary basin. The youngest of these formations, namely the Piaut (Pennsylvarian), Poti (Mississippian), Longa (Upper Devonian), and Cabecas (Middle Devoniar), contain the principal aquifers. Precipitation is the primary source of recharge to these aquifers and is more than sufficient to replenish current withdrawals from wells. Underlying the principal aquifers are the untapped Pimenteiras and Serra Grande Formations (both Lower Devonian) which in areas adjacent to the report area are moderately good to excellent water producers. These aquifers are recharged principally by lateral inflow from the east. Water also occurs in the alluvial deposits (Quaternary) underlying the flood plain of the Rio Parnatba but recurrent and uncontrolled flooding at present (1966) precludes their development. Of little economic importance, because they lie above the zone of saturation, are the thin erosional remnants of the Pastos Bons (Upper Triassic), Matuca, and Pedra de Fogo (both Permian) Formations. \r\n\r\nThere are in the report area about 200 drilled wells most of which are pumped with power-driven engines. The wells range from 40 to 500 meters deep but most do not exceed 150 meters, and practically all are completed open hole. Yields range from 500 liters per day for 6-inch-diameter domestic wells to 240,000 liters per hour for 10-inch high-capacity municipal wells. Although there are many more dug wells than drilled wells, dug wells account for less than 1 percent of the current (1966) draft. The current annual withdrawal from the principal aquifers is approximately 5 million cubic meters of which almost half is used for municipal supply and the rest for rural household and irrigation uses. Additional water for public supply is available from aquifers now being pumped, and larger yields probably could be obtained from rural wells designed to take full advantage of the aquifer. Analyses of 28 samples show that the chemical quality of the water is well below the \r\n\r\naccepted limits of mineral concentration for most uses. Water from the Longa Formation averages 842 milligrams per liter in total dissolved solids and is more mineralized than that in the Piaul and Port Formations which contain water averaging less than 300 milligrams per liter. The water in the Piaui and Poti aquifers is the most suitable in the area for irrigation and has SAR values of C1-S1 and C2-S1. \r\n\r\nThe quantities of water currently being used for irrigation are relatively small (600,000 cubic meters annually) but will increase substantially when intensive irrigation becomes a reality. Divisio de Hydrogeologia da Superintendancia do Desenvolvimento do Nordeste estimates that about 2,500 million cubic meters of water per year would be needed to irrigate about 250,000 hectares in the Teresina-Campo Maior area (about 25 percent of the total area). This goal, however, is not likely to be realized as the water requirement is five times the estimated natural recharge to the aquifers of the area. \r\n\r\nMost of the water-bearing formations in the report area have barely been tapped and can be developed a great deal more. In fact, the current annual withdrawal from the principal aquifers is less than 0.0025 percent of a conservative estimate of annual replenishment from rainfall. Additionally, only the","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1663G","usgsCitation":"Rodis, H.G., and Suszczynski, E.F., 1972, Ground-water in the Teresina-Campo Maior area, Piaui, Brazil: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1663, iv, G 1-G 34 p. :illus. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1663G.","productDescription":"iv, G 1-G 34 p. :illus. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138847,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1663g/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":28905,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1663g/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":28906,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1663g/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa9e4b07f02db66823c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rodis, Harry G.","contributorId":25141,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rodis","given":"Harry","email":"","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145499,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Suszczynski, Edison F.","contributorId":14804,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Suszczynski","given":"Edison","email":"","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145498,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":2378,"text":"wsp1999N - 1972 - Quality of the ground water in basalt of the Columbia River group, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-02-03T13:45:17","indexId":"wsp1999N","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1999","chapter":"N","title":"Quality of the ground water in basalt of the Columbia River group, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho","docAbstract":"The ground water within the 50,000-square-mile area of the layered basalt of the Columbia River Group is a generally uniform bicarbonate water having calcium and sodium in nearly equal amounts as the principal cations. water contains a relatively large amount of silica. \r\n\r\nThe 525 chemical analyses indicate that the prevalent ground water is of two related kinds--a calcium and a sodium water. The sodium water is more common beneath the floors of the main synclinal valleys; the calcium water, elsewhere. \r\n\r\nIn addition to the prevalent type, five special types form a small part of the ground water; four of these are natural and one is artificial. The four natural special types are: (1) calcium sodium chloride waters that rise from underlying sedimentary rocks west of the Cascade Range, (2) mineralized water at or near warm or hot springs, (3) water having unusual ion concentrations, especially of chloride, near sedimentary rocks intercalated at the edges of the basalt, and (4) more mineralized water near one locality of excess carbon dioxide. The one artificial kind of special ground water has resulted from unintentional artificial recharge incidental to irrigation in parts of central Washington. \r\n\r\nThe solids dissolved in the ground water have been picked up on the surface, within the overburden, and from minerals and glasses within the basalt. Evidence for the removal of ions from solution is confined to calcium and magnesium, only small amounts of which are present in some of the sodium-rich water. \r\n\r\nMinor constituents, such as the heavy metals, alkali metals, and alkali earths, occur in the ground water in trace, or small, amounts. The natural radioactivity of the ground waters is very low. Except for a few of the saline calcium sodium chloride waters and a few occurrences of excessive nitrate, the ground water generally meets the common standards of water good for most ordinary uses, but some of it can be improved by treatment. The water is clear and colorless and has a temperature slightly higher than would be indicated by the accepted 'normal' earth gradient. A small amount of iron is present in some of the water and a slight amount of hydrogen sulfide gas is present in water from most wells. \r\n\r\nCarbon-14 determinations indicate that the water has been underground for periods ranging from modern times to several tens of thousands of years. Generally, an increase in the age of the water corresponds to depth and with location in the central parts of the main structural basins. The evidence of correlations between chemical characteristics and the age of the water is limited to the excessive nitrate which occurs in young, shallow ground water and to the apparent base-exchange removal of calcium and magnesium that has occurred where the ground water is old.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1999N","usgsCitation":"Newcomb, R.C., 1972, Quality of the ground water in basalt of the Columbia River group, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1999, iv, 71 p. :illus. map (fold. col. in pocket) ;23 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1999N.","productDescription":"iv, 71 p. :illus. map (fold. col. in pocket) ;23 cm.","costCenters":[{"id":518,"text":"Oregon Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":137777,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999n/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":28335,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999n/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":28336,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999n/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a8be4b07f02db6517d4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Newcomb, Reuben Clair","contributorId":37712,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Newcomb","given":"Reuben","email":"","middleInitial":"Clair","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145107,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2352,"text":"wsp1608N - 1972 - Electric analog studies of flow to wells in the Punjab aquifer of West Pakistan","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:20","indexId":"wsp1608N","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1608","chapter":"N","title":"Electric analog studies of flow to wells in the Punjab aquifer of West Pakistan","docAbstract":"A series of experiments was performed with a steady-state electric analog simulating a cylindrical segment of the aquifer underlying the plains of the Punjab region of West Pakistan. In most of the experiments recharge was assumed to be from the surface, within a specified radius of influence, and distributed uniformly over the area within this radius. Experiments were made with different anisotropies (ratios of lateral to vertical resistance) so that various possible combinations of aquifer thickness and effective radius or radius of influence and combinations .of lateral and vertical permeability could be included in the models. Flow nets were constructed to show distribution of potential in the vertical section and intersections of stream surfaces with the vertical plane. \r\n\r\nThe series of experiments in which the screened interval is in the upper part of the aquifer shows that flow decreases and stream tubes shift progressively toward the upper part of the aquifer as anisotropy increases. \r\n\r\nAnother series illustrates that total yield increases and yield per foot of screen decreases as screen length increases. \r\n\r\nThe experiments indicate that, under conditions prevalent in the Punjab, the Distance-drawdown method for determining permeability gives results with an error of 10 percent or less provided that at least one piezometer or observation well is within a few feet of the pumped well and that no observation well or piezometer used is more than 100 feet from the pumped well. \r\n\r\nRelative traveltime for each of 10 stream tubes is given for three models. Relative traveltimes for one-fourth and one-half the effective radius are given for selected stream tubes. By substituting values for the aquifer parameters, actual traveltimes are computed from the relative-traveltime data.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"United States Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1608N","usgsCitation":"Mundorff, M.J., Bennett, G., and Ahmad, M., 1972, Electric analog studies of flow to wells in the Punjab aquifer of West Pakistan: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1608, iv, 28 p. :illus. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1608N.","productDescription":"iv, 28 p. :illus. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":137770,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608n/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":28277,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608n/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":28278,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608n/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a25e4b07f02db60eee0","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mundorff, Maurice John","contributorId":41404,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mundorff","given":"Maurice","email":"","middleInitial":"John","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145063,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Bennett, G.D.","contributorId":81073,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bennett","given":"G.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145065,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ahmad, Masood","contributorId":57438,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ahmad","given":"Masood","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145064,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":2323,"text":"wsp2005 - 1972 - Model hydrographs","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:19","indexId":"wsp2005","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2005","title":"Model hydrographs","docAbstract":"Model hydrographs are composed of pairs of dimensionless ratios, arrayed in tabular form, which, when modified by the appropriate values of rainfall exceed and by the time and areal characteristics of the drainage basin, satisfactorily represent the flood hydrograph for the basin. \r\n\r\nModel bydrographs are developed from a dimensionless translation hydrograph, having a time base of T hours and appropriately modified for storm duration by routing through reservoir storage, S=kOx. Models fall into two distinct classes: (1) those for which the value of x is unity and which have all the characteristics of true unit hydrographs and (2) those for which the value of x is other than unity and to which the unit-hydrograph principles of proportionality and superposition do not apply. \r\n\r\nTwenty-six families of linear models and eight families of nonlinear models in tabular form from the principal subject of this report. Supplemental discussions describe the development of the models and illustrate their application. Other sections of the report, supplemental to the tables, describe methods of determining the hydrograph characteristics, T, k, and x, both from observed hydrograph and from the physical characteristics of the drainage basin. \r\n\r\nFive illustrative examples of use show that the models, when properly converted to incorporate actual rainfall excess and the time and areal characteristics of the drainage basins, do indeed satisfactorily represent the observed flood hydrographs for the basins.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. G.P.O.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp2005","usgsCitation":"Mitchell, W.D., 1972, Model hydrographs: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2005, v, 85 p. :ill. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp2005.","productDescription":"v, 85 p. :ill. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":137566,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2005/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":28165,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2005/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db699a2e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mitchell, W. D.","contributorId":93023,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mitchell","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145013,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2081,"text":"wsp1899M - 1972 - Geohydrologic summary of the Pearl River basin, Mississippi and Louisiana","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":56144,"text":"ofr5942 - 1959 - Low-flow analysis of Pearl River at Jackson, Mississippi","indexId":"ofr5942","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"title":"Low-flow analysis of Pearl River at Jackson, Mississippi"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":2081,"text":"wsp1899M - 1972 - Geohydrologic summary of the Pearl River basin, Mississippi and Louisiana","indexId":"wsp1899M","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"chapter":"M","title":"Geohydrologic summary of the Pearl River basin, Mississippi and Louisiana"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:23","indexId":"wsp1899M","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1899","chapter":"M","title":"Geohydrologic summary of the Pearl River basin, Mississippi and Louisiana","docAbstract":"Fresh water in abundance is contained in large artesian reservoirs in sand and gravel deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary ages in the Pearl River basin, a watershed of 8,760 square miles. Shallow, water-table reservoirs occur in Quarternary deposits (Pleistocene and Holocene) that blanket most of the uplands in .the southern half of the basin and that are present in smaller upland areas and along streams elsewhere. The shallow reservoirs contribute substantially to dry-weather flow of the Strong River and Bogue Chitto and of Holiday, Lower Little, Silver, and Whitesand Creeks, among others. About 3 billion acre-feet of ground water is in storage in the fresh-water section, which extends from the surface to depths ranging from about sea level in the extreme northern part of the basin to more than 3,000 feet below sea level in the southern part of the basin. \r\n\r\nVariations in low flow for different parts of the river basin are closely related to geologic terrane and occurrence of ground water. The upland terrace belt that crosses the south-central part of the basin is underlain by permeable sand and gravel deposits and yields more than 0.20 cubic feet per second per square mile of drainage area to streamflow, whereas the northern part of the basin, underlain by clay, marl, and fine to medium sand, yields less than 0.05 cubic feet per second per square mile of drainage area (based on 7-day Q2 minimum flow computed from records). Overall, the potential surface-water supplies are large. \r\n\r\nBecause water is available at shallow depths, most of the deeper aquifers have not been developed anywhere in the basin. At many places in the south, seven or more aquifers could be developed either by tapping one sand in each well or by screening two or more sands in a single well. Well fields each capable, of producing several million gallons of water a day are feasible nearly anywhere in the Pearl River basin. \r\n\r\nWater in nearly all the aquifers is of good to excellent quality and requires little or no treatment for most uses. The water is a soft, sodium bicarbonate type and therefore has a low to moderate dissolved-solids content. Mineral content increases generally downdip in an aquifer. Excessive iron, common in shallow aquifers, is objectionable for some water uses. Water from the streams, except in salty tidal reaches, is less mineralized than ground water; in 10 sites the median dissolved-solids content in streamflow was 50 milligrams per liter or less. \r\n\r\nModerately intensive ground-water development has been made in the Bogalusa area, Louisiana; at the Mississippi Test Facility, Hancock County, Miss. ; and in the Jackson area, Mississippi. Wells with pumping rates of 500 to 1,000 gallons per minute each are common throughout the Pearl River basin, and some deep wells flow more than 3,000 gallons per minute in the coastal lowland areas. Probably 20 million gallons per day of artesian water flows uncontrolled from wells in the southern part of the basin. Ground-water levels, except in the higher altitudes, are within 60 feet of the surface, and flowing wells are common in the valleys and in the coastal Pine Meadows. Decline of water level is a problem in only a few small areas. \r\n\r\nSaline water as a resource is available for development from aquifers and streams near the coast and from aquifers at considerable depth in most of the Pearl River basin. Pollution is a problem in oil fields and in reaches of some streams below sewage and other waste-disposal points. The basin estuary contains water of variable quality but has potential for certain water-use developments that will require special planning and management.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1899M","usgsCitation":"Lang, J.W., 1972, Geohydrologic summary of the Pearl River basin, Mississippi and Louisiana: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1899, iv, 44 p. :illus. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1899M.","productDescription":"iv, 44 p. :illus. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":110039,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_25125.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"25125"},{"id":138153,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899m/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27641,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899m/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27642,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899m/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27643,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899m/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247102,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899m/plate-table_1.pdf","size":"1286","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b1be4b07f02db6a8dfd","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lang, Joseph W.","contributorId":30211,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lang","given":"Joseph","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144649,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2075,"text":"wsp1939D - 1972 - Chemical quality of the water in the Tucson basin, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:23","indexId":"wsp1939D","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1939","chapter":"D","title":"Chemical quality of the water in the Tucson basin, Arizona","docAbstract":"The Tucson basin is a broad mountain-rimmed area of about 1,000 square miles in the Basin and Range physiographic province in southeastern Arizona. The altitude ranges from 2,000 feet in the basin to as much as 8,000 feat in the mountains. The major streams in the area are the Santa Cruz River and its principal tributaries--Cafiada del Oro, Rillito Creek, and Pantano Wash. The climate is semiarid, and the distribution and amount of precipitation vary greatly. The potential evapotranspiration is about four times the average annual precipitation. \r\n\r\nThe streamflow is of excellent chemical quality, although most of the flow occurs during floods and generally has large concentrations of suspended sediment. Because of the erratic occurrence and quantity of streamflow and because of the lack of surface-water storage reservoirs, all the water for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses is obtained from the many wells that tap the permeable sedimentary deposits, which constitute the principal aquifer in the Tucson basin. \r\n\r\nThe aquifer consists of three sedimentary formations that range in age from middle Tertiary to Quaternary. The aquifer is as much as 2,000 feet thick and is composed mainly of sand, gravel, sandstone, and conglomerate. The upper part of the aquifer is more permeable than the lower part, and most wells obtain water at depths of less than 700 feet below the land surface. \r\n\r\nMost ground water contains less than 500 mg/l (milligrams per liter) of dissolved solids and is of suitable chemical quality for most uses. The water to depths of as much as 700 feet is a calcium sodium bicarbonate type, is hard to moderately hard, and contains less than 1.0 mg/l fluoride. Water at greater depth is a sodium bicarbonate type, is soft, and is of excellent chemical quality; however, water below about 1,0.00 feet may contain fluoride in excess of the maximum allowable limit of 1.4 mg/l for public supply. \r\n\r\nThe ground water of poorest quality for public supply is at shallow depths along the major streams, in the Pantano Formation along the northeast margin of the basin, at depth in gypsiferous mudstone, and along a narrow zone that trends northwestward across the basin. Water from these hydrologic environ- may contain as much as 500 mg/1 dissolved solids an4 in places may contain more than 1,000 mg/1 dissolved solids. \r\n\r\nThe anomalously large concentrations of calcium, bicarbonate, nitrate and sulfate in the ground water along the major streams, where the water table is from 25 to 150 feet below the land surface, are the result of near-surface phenomena. The large concentrations of these ions are derived from solution of relict salts, which were deposited in marshes along the streams prior to about 1900 by infiltrating surface water. In the narrow zone the trends northwestward across the basin, the large concentrations of calcium and sulfate are the result of the solution of limestone and gypsiferous mudstone in the sedimentary rocks in the headwaters area of Pantano Wash. The largest nitrate concentrations occur in the ground water along the Santa Cruz River; the nitrate probably is derived from irrigation return water, decayed vegetation from the marshes that occupied parts of the channel prior to 1900, and sewage effluent. \r\n\r\nAnomalously large concentrations of sodium, sulfate, chloride, and fluoride occur in ground water along the Santa Cruz River near the major faults that displace the older formations. These anomalously large concentrations probably are derived from the upward leakage of deep water that has reacted with the gypsiferous mudstone in the center of the basin and moved along the faults into the near-surface deposits. \r\n\r\nIn the Tucson basin the water is divided into seven chemical types based on the relative amount of four major ions--calcium, sodium, bicarbonate, and sulfate---and the absolute amount of chloride. Most of the water is either a calcium sodium bicarbonate or a sodium bicarbonate type. \r\n\r\nGr","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1939D","usgsCitation":"Laney, R., 1972, Chemical quality of the water in the Tucson basin, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1939, 1 portfolio (iv, 46 p. illus. 5 plates) ;23 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1939D.","productDescription":"1 portfolio (iv, 46 p. illus. 5 plates) ;23 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":110054,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_25166.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"25166"},{"id":138343,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939d/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27632,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939d/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27633,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939d/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27634,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939d/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27635,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939d/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247101,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939d/plate-5.pdf","size":"4732","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49dfe4b07f02db5e32a2","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Laney, R. L.","contributorId":83889,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Laney","given":"R. L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144643,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2027,"text":"wsp1586J - 1972 - Tracer simulation study of potential solute movement in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-12-30T09:39:10","indexId":"wsp1586J","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1586","chapter":"J","title":"Tracer simulation study of potential solute movement in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina","docAbstract":"A tracer study was conducted in Port Royal Sound to simulate the movement and ultimate pattern of concentration of a solute continuously injected into the flow. A total of 750 pounds of Rhodamine WT dye was injected by boat during a period of 24.8 hours in a line across the Colleton River. During the following 43 days, samples of water were taken at selected points in the sound, and the concentration of dye in the samples was determined by fluorometric analysis. \r\n\r\nThe data obtained in the field study were used with theoretical models to compute the ultimate pattern of concentration of nonconservative and conservative solutes for a hypothetical continuous injection at the site on the Colleton River.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/wsp1586J","usgsCitation":"Kilpatrick, F.A., and Cummings, T.R., 1972, Tracer simulation study of potential solute movement in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1586, iv, 27 p. , https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1586J.","productDescription":"iv, 27 p. ","costCenters":[{"id":13634,"text":"South Atlantic Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":27500,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1586j/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":137629,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1586j/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"South Carolina","otherGeospatial":"Port Royal Sound","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -80.9637451171875,\n 32.16166284018013\n ],\n [\n -80.321044921875,\n 32.16166284018013\n ],\n [\n -80.321044921875,\n 32.648625783736726\n ],\n [\n -80.9637451171875,\n 32.648625783736726\n ],\n [\n -80.9637451171875,\n 32.16166284018013\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a4de4b07f02db6271d5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kilpatrick, F. A.","contributorId":22319,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kilpatrick","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144550,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Cummings, T. Ray","contributorId":20722,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cummings","given":"T.","email":"","middleInitial":"Ray","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144549,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1786,"text":"wsp1999I - 1972 - Water for cranberry culture in the Cranmoor area of central Wisconsin","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2015-10-02T13:26:50","indexId":"wsp1999I","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1999","chapter":"I","title":"Water for cranberry culture in the Cranmoor area of central Wisconsin","docAbstract":"The Cranmoor area of central Wisconsin is the principal cranberry producing area of the State. Cranberries are grown in only about 2.5 square miles of an 80-square-mile marsh and swamp in the Cranberry Creek basin. Cranberry growers have built reservoirs and ditches throughout 25 square miles of marsh for better management of the area's natural water supply. Additional water is diverted into the basin to supplement the cranberry needs. In the 1966-67 hydrologic budget for Cranberry Creek basin, annual inputs were 27.8 inches of precipitation, 3.8 inches of surface-water diversion into the basin, and 1.1 inches decrease in stored water. Annual outputs were. 20.8 inches of evapotranspiration, 11.7 inches of runoff, and 0.2 inch of groundwater outflow. During the 1966-67 period, precipitation averaged about 3 inches per year below normal. The water used for cranberry culture is almost exclusively surface water. Efficient management of the basin's water supply, plus intermittent diversions of about 100 cubic feet per second from outside the basin, provide cranberry growers with a sufficient quantity of water. Although the quantity of surface water is adequate, the pH (generally 5.7-6.7) is slightly high for optimum use. Dissolved oxygen is slightly low, generally between 4 and 10 milligrams per liter. The water is soft; iron and manganese contents vary seasonally, being high in winter and summer and low in spring. Additional supplies of surface water can be obtained by increasing diversions from outside the basin and by increasing reservoir capacity within the basin. Ground water, although not presently used for cranberries, is available in the central, southern, and eastern parts of the basin, where the thickness of the saturated alluvium exceeds 50 feet. Well yields in these areas might be as much as 1,000 gpm (gallons per minute). Additionally, well yields of as much as 1,000 gpm may be expected from saturated alluvium southeast of Cranberry Creek basin. Where saturated alluvium is less than 50 feet thick, in the northern and western parts of the basin, well yields generally are less than 50 gpm. Ground water is also available from sandstone in the western part of the basin. Where the sandstone is thickest (about 60 ft.), well yields may be as much as 200 gpm. The quality of ground water is similar to that of surface water. The pH of water from the shallow alluvium ranges between 6.0 and 6,6; the pH of water from the deep alluvium is about 7.0. Ground water is soft to moderately hard, 22 to 88 milligrams per liter, and contains excessive amounts of iron and manganese.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Contributions to the hydrology of the United States","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wsp1999I","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with University Extension-the University of Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey","usgsCitation":"Hamilton, L.J., 1972, Water for cranberry culture in the Cranmoor area of central Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1999, Report: iii, 20 p.; 2 Plates: 34.50 x 24.00 inches and 17.00 x 27.00 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1999I.","productDescription":"Report: iii, 20 p.; 2 Plates: 34.50 x 24.00 inches and 17.00 x 27.00 inches","numberOfPages":"26","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":677,"text":"Wisconsin Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":138497,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999i/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26922,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999i/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26923,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999i/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26921,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999i/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Wisconsin","city":"Cranmoor","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -90.3131103515625,\n 44.50825885600572\n ],\n [\n -90.450439453125,\n 44.308126684886126\n ],\n [\n -90.3570556640625,\n 44.05601169578525\n ],\n [\n -90.164794921875,\n 44.07969327425713\n ],\n [\n -90.02197265625,\n 44.24126379833979\n ],\n [\n -89.9615478515625,\n 44.296332880058706\n ],\n [\n -89.9176025390625,\n 44.37098696297173\n ],\n [\n -89.945068359375,\n 44.46123053905882\n ],\n [\n -90.0164794921875,\n 44.53175879707938\n ],\n [\n -90.142822265625,\n 44.57873024377564\n ],\n [\n -90.3131103515625,\n 44.50825885600572\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e48d1e4b07f02db547e08","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hamilton, Louis J.","contributorId":53768,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hamilton","given":"Louis","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144154,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1217,"text":"wsp1999H - 1972 - Subsurface geology of the late Tertiary and Quaternary water-bearing deposits of the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley, California","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:17","indexId":"wsp1999H","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1999","chapter":"H","title":"Subsurface geology of the late Tertiary and Quaternary water-bearing deposits of the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley, California","docAbstract":"The study area, which includes about 5,000 square miles of the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley, is a broad structural trough of mostly interior drainage. The Sierra Nevada on the east is composed of consolidated igneous and metamorphic rocks of pre-Tertiary age. The surface of these rocks slopes 4?-6? southwestward from the foothills and underlies the valley. The Coast Ranges on the west consist mostly of complexly folded and faulted consolidated marine and nonmarine sedimentary rocks of Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary age, which dip eastward and overlie the basement complex. Unconsolidated deposits, of late Pliocene to Holocene age, blanket the underlying consolidated rocks in the valley and are the source of most of the fresh ground water. The unconsolidated deposits, the subject of this report, are divided into informal stratigraphic units on the basis of source of sediment, environment of deposition, and texture. \r\n\r\nFlood-basin, lacustrine, and marsh deposits are fine grained and underlie the valley trough. They range in age from late Pliocene to Holocene. These deposits, consisting of nearly impermeable gypsiferous fine sand, silt, and clay, are more than 3,000 feet thick beneath parts of Tulare Lake bed. In other parts of the trough, flood-basin, lacustrine, and marsh deposits branch into clayey or silty clay tongues designated by the letter symbols A to F. Three of these tongues, the E, C, and A clays, lie beneath large areas of the southern part of the valley. \r\n\r\nThe E clay includes the Corcoran Clay Member of the Tulare Formation, the most extensive hydrologic confining layer in the valley. The E clay underlies about 3,500 square miles of bottom land and western slopes. The beds generally are dark-greenish-gray mostly diatomaceous silty clay of Pleistocene age. Marginally, the unit bifurcates into an upper and a lower stratum that contains thin beds of moderately yellowish-brown silt and sand. The E clay is warped into broad, gentle northwesterly trending anticlines and synclines. \r\n\r\nThe C clay, of Pleistocene age, is a fine-grained lacustrine or paludal deposit occurring 220-300 feet beneath Tulare Lake bed and parts of Fresno Slough. The beds consist of bluish-gray silty clay. Structural contours indicate that the C clay has been extensively warped and folded. \r\n\r\nThe A clay of Pleistocene and Holocene (?) age is a fine-grained lacustrine or paludal deposit occurring 10-60 feet beneath Buena Vista, Kern, and Tulare Lake beds, and parts of Fresno Slough. The clay is mainly blue or dark greenish gray, plastic, and highly organic. In some areas the unit is separated into an upper and a lower stratum by several feet of sand. A radiocarbon date of 26,780 ? 600 years was obtained from wood cored 3 feet beneath the clay. \r\n\r\nContinental deposits are arkosic beds of late Pliocene and Pleistocene (?) age and were derived from the Sierra Nevada, Tehachapi, and San Emigdio Mountains. In places, a reduced-oxidized contact transgresses the deposits derived from the Sierra Nevada. The reduced deposits consist of moderately permeable bluish-green or bluish-gray fine to medium sand, silt, and clay. The oxidized deposits consist mainly of poorly permeable yellowish-brown silt and fine sand. Deposits derived from the Tehachapi and the San Emigdio Mountains consist of poorly to moderately permeable yellowish-brown sand and silt. Continental and alluvial deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age that were derived from the Coast Ranges consist mainly of poorly to moderately permeable yellowish-brown gravel, sand, silt, and clay. They include the Tulare Formation and overlying alluvial deposits. \r\n\r\nAlluvium is composed of coarse arkosic deposits derived from the Sierra Nevada, Tehachapi, and San Emigdio Mountains. A reduced-oxidized contact also transgresses the alluvial deposits derived from the Sierra Nevada. The oxidized deposits consist of poorly to highly permeable yellowish-brown gravel, sand, silt, and clay. The reduc","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1999H","usgsCitation":"Croft, M., 1972, Subsurface geology of the late Tertiary and Quaternary water-bearing deposits of the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1999, iv, 29 p. :illus. and portfolio (6 plates) ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1999H.","productDescription":"iv, 29 p. :illus. and portfolio (6 plates) ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":137986,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26116,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26117,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26118,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26119,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26120,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26121,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26122,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1999h/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db699a52","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Croft, M.G.","contributorId":55413,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Croft","given":"M.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143384,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1144,"text":"wsp1757M - 1972 - Significance of ground-water chemistry in performance of North Sahara Tube wells in Algeria and Tunisia","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:18","indexId":"wsp1757M","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1757","chapter":"M","title":"Significance of ground-water chemistry in performance of North Sahara Tube wells in Algeria and Tunisia","docAbstract":"Nine ground-water samples from the principal shallow and deep North Sahara aquifers of Algeria and Tunisia were examined to determine the relation of their chemical composition to corrosion and mineral encrustation thought to be contributing to observed decline in well capacities within a UNESCO/UNDP Special Fund Project area. Although the shallow and deep waters differ significantly in certain quality factors, all are sulfochloride types with corrosion potentials ranging from moderate to extreme. None appear to be sufficiently supersaturated with troublesome mineral species to cause rapid or severe encrustation of filter pipes or other well parts. However, calcium carbonate encrustation of deep-well cooling towers and related irrigation pipes can be expected because of loss of carbon dioxide and water during evaporative cooling. \r\n\r\nCorrosion products, particularly iron sulfide, can be expected to deposit in wells producing waters from the deep aquifers. This could reduce filterpipe openings and increase casing roughness sufficiently to cause significant reduction in well capacity. It seems likely, however, that normal pressure reduction due to exploitation of the artesian systems is a more important control of well performance. If troublesome corrosion and related encrustation are confirmed by downhole inspection, use of corrosion-resisting materials, such as fiber-glass casing and saw-slotted filter pipe (shallow wells only), or stainless-steel screen, will minimize the effects of the waters represented by these samples. A combination of corrosion-resisting stainless steel filter pipe electrically insulated from the casing with a nonconductive spacer and cathodic protection will minimize external corrosion of steel casing, if this is found to be a problem. However, such installations are difficult to make in very deep wells and difficult to control in remote areas. Both the shallow waters and the deep waters examined in this study will tend to cause soil salinization because their salt contents are relatively high, and both have sodium absorption ratios which are unfavorable to sodium-sensitive soils and vegetation. Proper drainage and soil treatment are the only means of overcoming these problems during irrigation.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1757M","usgsCitation":"Clarke, F., and Jones, B.F., 1972, Significance of ground-water chemistry in performance of North Sahara Tube wells in Algeria and Tunisia: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1757, vi, M1-M39 p. :illus. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1757M.","productDescription":"vi, M1-M39 p. :illus. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":137623,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1757m/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":25925,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1757m/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f9e4b07f02db5f3ccc","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Clarke, Frank Eldridge","contributorId":107255,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Clarke","given":"Frank Eldridge","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143252,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jones, Blair F. bfjones@usgs.gov","contributorId":2784,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jones","given":"Blair","email":"bfjones@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[{"id":436,"text":"National Research Program - Eastern Branch","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":143251,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":950,"text":"wsp1939C - 1972 - Electrical-analog analysis of the hydrologic system, Tucson basin, southeastern Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:16","indexId":"wsp1939C","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1939","chapter":"C","title":"Electrical-analog analysis of the hydrologic system, Tucson basin, southeastern Arizona","docAbstract":"The water supply for the Tucson basin, Arizona, is derived entirely from ground water. The average annual pumpage for 1962-64 was about 165,000 acre-feet and was greater than the natural rate of ground-water recharge. Water-level declines of as much as 70 feet occurred from spring 1940 to spring 1965 as a result of the overdraft. \r\n\r\nAn electrical-analog model of the hydrologic system was constructed to provide a tool for determining the possible future effects of ground-water management schemes. Basic data required for the simulation of the hydrologic system in the model included periodic water-level measurements, determinations of transmissibility, and pumpage and recharge values. The model was analyzed using steady-state and storage-depletion techniques. The steady state analysis served to determine the average annual recharge to the hydrologic system and to verify the pattern of transmissibility. The steady-state analysis indicated that 97,000 acre-feet of water was entering and leaving the ground-water reservoir annually prior to extensive development. The storage-depletion analysis for 1940-64 was made to verify that the model was a valid analog of the hydrologic system and, therefore, could be used for the prediction of future water-level conditions. The storage-depletion analysis indicated areas where some of the basic-data values and (or) the conceptual design of the hydrologic system used in the model were in error. After all the hydrologic variables simulated in the model had been adjusted, the analog model reasonably simulated the historical field data. Based on the assumption that pumpage and recharge would continue at existing rates and locations, the model was then used to predict water-level conditions in spring 1985. The results of the projection indicate a maximum water-level decline of 140 feet for 1940-84. The predicted overall shapes of the cones of depression will remain about the same as in the historical period, except that a large amount of lateral development will take place in all the cones.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1939C","usgsCitation":"Anderson, T.W., 1972, Electrical-analog analysis of the hydrologic system, Tucson basin, southeastern Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1939, 1 portfolio (iv, p. illus.) ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1939C.","productDescription":"1 portfolio (iv, p. illus.) ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":110053,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_25165.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"25165"},{"id":138058,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":25455,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25456,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25457,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25458,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25459,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25460,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25461,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1939c/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a19e4b07f02db606096","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Anderson, T. W.","contributorId":105686,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Anderson","given":"T.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":142906,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":939,"text":"wsp1973 - 1972 - Availability of water in Kalamazoo County, southwestern Michigan","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-08-26T13:54:14","indexId":"wsp1973","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1973","title":"Availability of water in Kalamazoo County, southwestern Michigan","docAbstract":"Kalamazoo County comprises an area of 572 square miles in the southwestern part of Michigan. It includes parts of the Kalamazoo, St. Joseph, and Paw Paw River basins, which drain into Lake Michigan. The northern two-thirds of the county is drained by the Kalamazoo River and its tributaries. A small area in the western piart of the county is drained by the Paw Paw River, and the rest, by tributaries of the St. Joseph River. Glacial deposits, containing sand and gravel, form an upper aquifer and a lower aquifer underlying large parts of the county. Areas of high transmissibility and thick saturated deposits are sufficiently localized to be considered as separate ground-water reservoirs having limited areal extent and definite hydrologic boundaries.
Ground-water runoff from the basins constitutes a large part of the streamflow. Hydrograph separation shows that ground-water runoff composed 65 and 73 percent of the discharge of Kalamazoo River at Comstock and 75 and 79 percent of the discharge of Portage River near Vicksburg in 1965 and 1966, respectively. Based on the hydrologic budgets for the same years, ground-water recharge was 9.1 and 9.0 inches in the Kalamazoo River basin and 12.2 and 11.6 inches in the St. Joseph River basin.
Ground-water recharge in the Kalamazoo River basin extrapolated for the 34-year period 1933-66 ranged from 4 to 13 inches and averaged 9 inches. In the St. Joseph River basin average recharge was about 9 inches for the same period.
There is a wide range in runoff in the county. Augusta Creek, Portage Creek near Kalamazoo, and Gourdneck Creek have the highest annual runoff and maintain high yields even during periods of deficient precipitation. Spring Brook also reflects large ground-water contributions to streamflow. Storage in these basins could provide additional water during low flows for municipal and industrial needs.
The primary use of lakes in the county is for recreational and esthetic purposes. Maintaining lake levels is therefore of the utmost importance. Levels at Crooked and Eagle Lakes have been maintained by pumping from lower aquifers. Diversion of water from Gourdneck Creek to West and Austin Lakes has helped in maintaining levels. Several relatively undeveloped lakes could be utilized as reservoirs whose storage could be used to augment streamflow or for water supply.
Water in streams is generally of good chemical quality; however, several streams, including the Kalamazoo River downstream from Kalamazoo, have been degraded by municipal and industrial waste disposal. Water in the lakes is generally of good chemical quality with the exception of Barton Lake, which has been degraded by waste disposal.
There is sufficient surface water available in Kalamazoo County to meet requirements for development of large quantities of water. The total available supply (average discharge of a stream) is about 680 mgd (million gallons per day). The dependable supply (7-day Q2, or average 7-day low flow having a recurrence interval of 2 years) is about 303 mgd. By developing artificial recharge facilities, surface runoff during winter and spring could be utilized to recharge ground-water reservoirs.
Surface-water withdrawal in 1966 was about 58 mgd, of which 33 mgd was withdrawn from the Kalamazoo River. The quantity of water now being withdrawn from the ground and surface sources is small compared to the total that may be obtained in the area through full utilization of these resources.
Mathematical models were used to simulate hydrologic conditions in the ground-water reservoirs and to evaluate maximum drawdowns for periods of little or no recharge. The practical limits of development as determined for the ground-water reservoirs are estimated to be at the following average withdrawal rates: Kalamazoo, 39 .mgd; Schoolcraft, 17 mgd; Kalamazoo-Portage, 24 mgd; and several small reservoirs, 67 mgd. These total 147 mgd. Further development would require additional artificial recharge facilities.
Average ground-water withdrawal in 1966 was about 54 mgd. The Kalamazoo River ground-water reservoir furnished about 28 mgd, the Kalamazoo-Portage ground-water reservoir, about 21 mgd, and the other reservoirs, about 5 mgd. Thus, further development without artificial recharge is estimated to be about 11 mgd in the Kalamazoo River reservoir, 17 mgd in the Schoolcraft reservoir, 62 mgd in the several small reservoirs, and only 3 mgd in the Kalamazoo-Portage reservoir.
The ground water is generally of good chemical quality and is suitable for most uses; however, it is Usually very hard and may contain objectionable amounts of iron. Some deterioration of water quality- has .been observed in several areas because of seepage from stockpiles of industrial minerals.
The presence of many inland lakes, streams having high ground-water runoff, and, in places, relatively undeveloped ground-water reservoirs provides -flexibility in water management.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1973","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with Kalamazoo County and the State of Michigan","usgsCitation":"Allen, W.B., Miller, J.B., and Wood, W., 1972, Availability of water in Kalamazoo County, southwestern Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1973, Document: vii, 129 p.; 9 Plates: 30.50 x 40.85 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1973.","productDescription":"Document: vii, 129 p.; 9 Plates: 30.50 x 40.85 inches or smaller","costCenters":[{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":137203,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":25416,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25417,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25418,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25419,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25420,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25421,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25422,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-7.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25423,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-8.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25424,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/plate-9.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":94694,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1973/report.pdf","size":"9491","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Michigan","county":"Kalamazoo County","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[-85.5421,42.4195],[-85.5328,42.4194],[-85.4172,42.4199],[-85.3091,42.4185],[-85.2979,42.4188],[-85.2969,42.3361],[-85.297,42.3298],[-85.2967,42.2721],[-85.296,42.2448],[-85.295,42.159],[-85.2928,42.0717],[-85.4102,42.0714],[-85.5301,42.0714],[-85.6427,42.0704],[-85.7638,42.0698],[-85.7654,42.157],[-85.7663,42.4196],[-85.5421,42.4195]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Kalamazoo\",\"state\":\"MI\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a9ae4b07f02db65d5aa","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Allen, William Burrows","contributorId":13596,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Allen","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"Burrows","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":142889,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Miller, John B.","contributorId":37304,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miller","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":142891,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Wood, Warren W.","contributorId":47770,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Wood","given":"Warren W.","affiliations":[{"id":6601,"text":"Michigan State University","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":142890,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":48084,"text":"ofr72382 - 1972 - Hydrograph simulation models of the Hillsborough and Alafia Rivers, Florida: a preliminary report","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-05-29T07:19:12","indexId":"ofr72382","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-382","title":"Hydrograph simulation models of the Hillsborough and Alafia Rivers, Florida: a preliminary report","docAbstract":"Mathematical (digital) models that simulate flood hydrographs from rainfall records have been developed for the following gaging stations in the Hillsborough and Alafia River basins of west-central Florida: Hillsborough River near Tampa, Alafia River at Lithia, and north Prong Alafia River near Keysville. These models, which were developed from historical streamflow and and rainfall records, are based on rainfall-runoff and unit-hydrograph procedures involving an arbitrary separation of the flood hydrograph. These models assume the flood hydrograph to be composed of only two flow components, direct (storm) runoff, and base flow. Expressions describing these two flow components are derived from streamflow and rainfall records and are combined analytically to form algorithms (models), which are programmed for processing on a digital computing system.
\nMost Hillsborough and Alafia River flood discharges can be simulated with expected relative errors less than or equal to 30 percent and flood peaks can be simulated with average relative errors less than 15 percent.
\nBecause of the inadequate rainfall network that is used in obtaining input data for the North Prong Alafia River model, simulated peaks are frequently in error by more than 40 percent, particularly for storms having highly variable areal rainfall distribution.
\nSimulation errors are the result of rainfall sample errors and, to a lesser extent, model inadequacy. Data errors associated with the determination of mean basin precipitation are the result of the small number and poor areal distribution of rainfall stations available for use in the study. Model inadequacy, however, is attributed to the basic underlying theory, particularly the rainfall-runoff relation.
\nThese models broaden and enhance existing water-management capabilities within these basins by allowing the establishment and implementation of programs providing for continued development in these areas. Specifically, the models serve not only as a basis for forecasting floods, but also for simulating hydrologic information needed in flood-plain mapping and delineating and evaluating alternative flood control and abatement plans.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Tampa, FL","doi":"10.3133/ofr72382","collaboration":"Prepared by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with Southwest Florida Water Management District","usgsCitation":"Turner, J.F., 1972, Hydrograph simulation models of the Hillsborough and Alafia Rivers, Florida: a preliminary report: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-382, 107 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72382.","productDescription":"107 p.","numberOfPages":"107","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":287744,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":287743,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0382/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Florida","otherGeospatial":"Alafia River;Hillsborough River","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -82.5,27.75 ], [ -82.5,28.5 ], [ -82.0,28.5 ], [ -82.0,27.75 ], [ -82.5,27.75 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a2de4b07f02db61475b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Turner, James F. Jr.","contributorId":16275,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Turner","given":"James","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":236785,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":32489,"text":"wrr1 - 1972 - An analysis of the population dynamics of selected avian species, with special reference to changes during the modern pesticide era","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:09:09","indexId":"wrr1","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":99,"text":"Wildlife Research Report","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":1}},"seriesNumber":"1","title":"An analysis of the population dynamics of selected avian species, with special reference to changes during the modern pesticide era","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service","usgsCitation":"Henny, C.J., 1972, An analysis of the population dynamics of selected avian species, with special reference to changes during the modern pesticide era: Wildlife Research Report 1, 99 p. illus. ; 26 cm.","productDescription":"99 p. illus. ; 26 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":160648,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adae4b07f02db68582d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Henny, Charles J. 0000-0001-7474-350X hennyc@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7474-350X","contributorId":3461,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Henny","given":"Charles","email":"hennyc@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":289,"text":"Forest and Rangeland Ecosys Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":208592,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ]}