The Piedmont Upland in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware is about 160 miles long and at the most 50 miles wide. Rocks that underlie the province are the Baltimore gneiss of Precambrian age and quartzite, gneiss, schist, marble, phyllite, and greenstone, which make up the Glenarm series of early Paleozoic (?) age. These are intruded by granitic, gabbroic, and ultramaflc igneous rocks. Most of the ultramaflc rocks, originally peridotite, pyroxenite, and dunite, have been partly or completely altered to serpentine and talc; they are all designated by the general term serpentine. The bodies of serpentine are commonly elongate and conformable with the enclosing rocks. Many have been extensively quarried for building, decorative, and crushed stone. In addition, chromite, titaniferous magnetite, rutile, talc and soapstone, amphibole asbestos, magnesite, sodium- rich feldspar (commercially known as soda spar), and corundum have been mined or prospected for in the serpentine.
Both high-grade massive chromite and lower grade disseminated chromite occur in very irregular and unpredictable form in the serpentine, and placer deposits of chromite are in and near streams that drain areas underlain by serpentine. A group of unusual minerals, among them kammererite, are typical associates of high-grade massive chromite but are rare in lower grade deposits.
Chromite was first discovered in the United States at Bare Hills, Md., around 1810. Between 1820 and 1850, additional deposits were discovered and mined in Maryland and Pennsylvania, including the largest deposit of massive chromite ever found in the United States the Wood deposit, in the State Line district. A second period of extensive chromite mining came during the late 1860's and early 1870's.
Production figures are incomplete and conflicting. Estimates from the available data indicate that the aggregate production from 27 of 40 known mines before 1900 totaled between 250,000 and 280,000 tons of lode-chromite ore; information is lacking for the other 13. Placer deposits produced considerably more than 15,000 tons of chromite concentrates. Exploratory work in several of the mines and placer deposits during World War I produced about 1,500 long tons of chromite ore, 920 tons of which was sold.
Most of the chromite from Maryland and Pennsylvania was used to manufacture chemical compounds, pigments, and dyes before metallurgical and refractory uses for chromite were developed. Available analyses of the ores indicate that they would satisfy modern requirements for chemical-grade chromite. With the exception of such deposits as the Line Pit and Red Pit mines, the chromite contains too much iron for the best metallurgical grade, but many would be satisfactory low-grade metallurgical chromite. Perhaps 30,000 to 50,000 tons of chromite concentrates that would range from 30 to 54 percent Cr2O3 could be obtained from placer deposits in the State Line and Soldiers Delight districts. A small tonnage of chromite remains in dumps at six of the old mines. Lode and placer deposits in the Philadelphia district, placers in Montgomery County, Md., and possible downward extensions of known ore bodies below the floors of high-grade mines now flooded have not been completely explored. Although other chromite deposits probably lie concealed at relatively shallow depths, no practical method of finding them has been developed.
Small deposits of titaniferous iron ore in serpentine were mined for iron before 1900, but the titanium content troubled furnace operators. Ore bodies are similar in occurrence to chromite deposits; they are massive or disseminated and are found near the edges of serpentine intrusive rocks. The small size of the deposits and comparatively low titanium content limit their importance as a potential source of titanium.
A single rutile deposit in Harford County, Md., has been prospected but not mined. Pockets in schistose chlorite rock, probably altered from pyroxenite, contain as much as 16 percent rutile and average 8 percent. Rutile-bearing rock has been proved to a depth of about 58 feet.
Talc and soapstone deposits that have been worked in the State Line and Jarrettsville-Dublin districts are the result of steatitization of serpentine at its contact with intrusive sodium-rich pegmatites. Deposits in the Marriottsville and Philadelphia districts seem to be related to shear or crush zones in the serpentine, which served as channelways for steatitizing solutions. Massive soapstone was extensively used in the 19th century for furnace, fireplace, and stove linings and for washtubs and bathtubs. Every year from 1906 until 1960 talc and soapstone have been produced from one or more of the deposits in Maryland and Pennsylvania. Deposits near Dublin and Marriottsville, Md., have produced steadily for years and production continues. Lava-grade steatite from Dublin, Md., is manufactured into ceramic products for electrical and refractory purposes.
Slip-fiber amphibole asbestos deposits were known in the area as early as 1837, but early production was limited. The product was used mostly for linings of safes, boiler covers, and paints. During World War I the demand for domestic asbestos for chemical filters led to further development of deposits in Maryland. Between 1916 and 1940 many small veins of good-quality tremolite and anthophyllite were mined, and the fiber was prepared for market at Woodlawn, Md. Only the upper parts of veins, softened by weathering, were usable. Because prospecting was reportedly fairly thorough and known deposits are said to be mined out, and because demand for amphibole asbestos is limited, the possibility of future asbestos production from the area seems small, except as a byproduct of talc quarrying.
Magnesite from several mines in Pennsylvania and Maryland was much in demand between 1828 and 1871 for the manufacture of epsom salt. Exploratory work at the old Goat Hill mines in 1921 indicated that the product could not be profitably prepared for market at that time. Although reportedly high grade, the magnesite veins are thin and small in comparison with other domestic deposits.
Sodium-rich feldspar and corundum deposits occur in pegmatites that are unusual because they characteristically contain little or no quartz and mica and because, insofar as known, they are confined to serpentine rocks. Many of the known deposits of sodium-rich feldspar commercial soda-spar are reportedly mined out. It is possible, however, that other commercial deposits will be found in the area.
At various times from 1825 until about 1892 in Pennsylvania, corundum mined or found at the surface was used to meet a demand of the abrasives industry. The increased use of artificial abrasives has diminished the demand for natural corundum, and interest in the small, irregular Pennsylvania deposits is at present largely historical or mineralogical.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/b1082K","usgsCitation":"Pearre, N., and Heyl, A.V., 1960, Chromite and other mineral deposits in serpentine rocks of the Piedmont Upland, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082, Report: vii, 126 p.; 8 Plates: 29.51 x 17.78 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/b1082K.","productDescription":"Report: vii, 126 p.; 8 Plates: 29.51 x 17.78 inches or smaller","startPage":"707","endPage":"833","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":172972,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":109308,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_20752.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"20752"},{"id":100033,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"9.80 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":100034,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-40.pdf","text":"Plate 40","size":"1.66 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 40"},{"id":100035,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-41.pdf","text":"Plate 41","size":"2.03 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 41"},{"id":100036,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-42.pdf","text":"Plate 42","size":"1.29 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 42"},{"id":100037,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-43.pdf","text":"Plate 43","size":"472 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 43"},{"id":100038,"rank":412,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-44.pdf","text":"Plate 44","size":"325 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 44"},{"id":100039,"rank":413,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-45.pdf","text":"Plate 45","size":"536 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 45"},{"id":100040,"rank":414,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-46.pdf","text":"Plate 46","size":"389 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 46"},{"id":100041,"rank":415,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082k/plate-47.pdf","text":"Plate 47","size":"640 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 47"}],"country":"United States","state":"Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -77.45361328125,\n 39.07464374293251\n ],\n [\n -75.0640869140625,\n 39.07464374293251\n ],\n [\n -75.0640869140625,\n 40.51797520038851\n ],\n [\n -77.45361328125,\n 40.51797520038851\n ],\n [\n -77.45361328125,\n 39.07464374293251\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49dde4b07f02db5e2512","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Pearre, Nancy C.","contributorId":88208,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pearre","given":"Nancy C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235199,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Heyl, Allen V. Jr.","contributorId":81168,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Heyl","given":"Allen","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","middleInitial":"V.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235198,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":47380,"text":"b1082F - 1960 - Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":43620,"text":"ofr5182 - 1951 - Geologic maps of the Northgate fluorspar district, Colorado","indexId":"ofr5182","publicationYear":"1951","noYear":false,"title":"Geologic maps of the Northgate fluorspar district, Colorado"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":47380,"text":"b1082F - 1960 - Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","indexId":"b1082F","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"chapter":"F","title":"Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":47380,"text":"b1082F - 1960 - Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","indexId":"b1082F","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"chapter":"F","title":"Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":33208,"text":"b1082 - 1962 - Contributions to economic geology, 1958","indexId":"b1082","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958"},"id":2}],"isPartOf":{"id":33208,"text":"b1082 - 1962 - Contributions to economic geology, 1958","indexId":"b1082","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-10-18T14:10:41","indexId":"b1082F","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1082","chapter":"F","title":"Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado","docAbstract":"The fluorspar deposits in the Northgate district, Jackson County, Colo., are among the largest in Western United States. The mines were operated intermittently during the 1920's and again during World War II, but production during these early periods of operation was not large. Mining was begun on a larger scale in 1951, and the district has assumed a prominent position among the fluorspar producers in the United States.
Within the Northgate district, Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks crop out largely in the Medicine Bow Mountains, and later sedimentary rocks underlie North Park and fill old stream valleys in the mountains.
The metamorphic rocks constitute a gneiss complex that formed under progressively changing conditions of regional metamorphism. They consist principally of hornblende-plagioclase gneiss (hornblende gneiss), quartz monzonite gneiss, pegmatite, biotite-garnet-quartz-plagioclase gneiss (biotite-garnet gneiss), hornblende-biotite-quartz-plagioclase gneiss (hornblende-biotite gneiss) and mylonite gneiss.
The igneous rocks comprise some local fine-grained dacite porphyry dikes near the west margin of the district, and a quartz monzonitic stock and associated dikes in the central and eastern parts of the district.
The sedimentary rocks in the district range in age from Permian to Recent. Folded Permian and Mesozoic rocks underlie the basin of North Park, and consist in sequence from oldest to youngest, of Satanka(?) shale (0-50 feet of brick-red shale) and Forelle(?) limestone (8-15 feet of pink to light-gray laminated limestone) of Permian age, Chugwater formation of Permian and Triassic age (690 feet of red silty shale and sandstone), Sundance formation of Late Jurassic age (145 feet of sandstone containing some shale and limestone), Morrison formation of Late Jurassic age (445 feet of variegated shale and minor sandstone and limestone), Dakota group as used by Lee (1927), now considered to be of Early Cretaceous age in this area (200-320 feet of pebbly sandstone, sandstone, and shale), Ben ton shale of Early and Late Cretaceous age (665 feet of dark-gray thin-bedded shale), Niobrara formation of Late Cretaceous age (865 feet of yellow to gray limy siltstone and shale), and Pierre shale of Late Cretaceous age (more than 60 feet of dark-gray fissile shale). Unconformities separate the Chugwater and Sundance formations, and the Morrison formation and the Dakota group.
Nonmarine strata of the White River formation of Oligocene age and the North Park formation of Miocene and Pliocene (?) age fill Tertiary valleys cut in the Precambrian rocks of the mountain areas, and Quaternary terrace gravel, alluvium, and dune sand mantle much of the floor of North Park.
The main outlines of the modern Rocky Mountains formed during the Laramide orogeny in late Mesozoic and early Tertiary time. Most of the Laramide structures that can be recognized in the Northgate district involve the sedimentary rocks underlying North Park which are folded into northwest-trending anticlines and synclines. The folds are open and in most the beds dip 60° or less. Yet many anticlines are cut by reverse faults of widely different trends and directions of offset. Transverse faults offset some of the folds, and the character of folding commonly is markedly different on opposing sides of these faults. The North Park basin is cut off on the north by the east-trending Independence Mountain fault, a north-dipping reverse fault along which hard Precambrian rocks have been thrust up across the trend of the earlier Laramide structures. The North Park basin is still a major structure where it is interrupted by the Independence Mountain fault, and the original basin must have extended much farther north.
Disrupted gradients at the base of pre-White River valleys suggest that the Northgate district and adjacent areas may have been deformed in middle Tertiary time, but the evidence is not conclusive. A more definite period of deformation took place in Pliocene time following deposition of the North Park formation. North Park strata in south-central North Park were folded into a northwest-trending syncline, and the central part of the Northgate district probably was warped up along a north- or northwestward-trending axis.
Four north- to northwestward-trending faults cut the Precambrian rocks and White River formation on Pinkham Mountain and the area to the southeast. Similar faults 2½ and 15 miles west of the Northgate district cut rocks of the North Park formation, and all probably formed during the Pliocene period of deformation. The known commercial fluorspar deposits are localized along the two larger faults of the Northgate district, and they have been studied in detail.
The White River formation in early Oligocene time covered a hilly terrain drained by southward-flowing streams. By late Miocene, the northward-flowing streams had cut to about the same levels reached by the pre-White River streams and had partly exhumed and modified the older terrain. During late Miocene and early Pliocene (?) time, the Northgate area was buried beneath the clays, sands, and gravels of the North Park formation. Subsequent erosion removed the higher part of the North Park formation, cut a surface of low relief across the exhumed Precambrian rocks, and removed all topographic evidence of the Pliocene period of deformation. The present courses of the major streams were superimposed across the buried terrains during this period of erosion. Rejuvenation during middle Pleistocene caused all major streams to become incised in sharp canyons.
Copper minerals occur in small concentrations in some of the pegmatite masses in the gneiss complex. The copper-rich masses rarely exceed a few feet in diameter and constitute only a small part of the associated pegmatite body.
Vermiculite is exposed in prospect pits and mine workings along the west margin of the Northgate district. All the venniculite that was seen is associated with small masses of horablendite, massive chlorite, or serpentinite where these masses are near or are cut by pegmatite bodies. Some of the deposits may be potential producers of commercial-grade vermiculite, but most are small and erratic in shape or grade.
Fluorspar is the main mineral commodity that has been produced from the Northgate district. It was deposited during two distinct periods of mineralization, but only the younger deposits have been productive.
Small bodies of silicified breccia containing minor coarsely crystalline fluorite occur along the Independence Mountain fault, and in a few places along other Laramide faults. The fluorspar is an integral part of the fault breccia and apparently was deposited while the enclosing fault was still active.
The largest deposits of fluorspar in the Northgate district occur along the late Tertiary (?) faults on Pinkham Mountain. The fluorspar consists typically of botryoidal layers that formed as successive encrustations along open fractures, or as finely granular aggregates replacing and cementing fault gouge and White River formation. Many incompletely filled cavities, called water courses, still exist. Fluorite is the principal vein material; fragments of country rock constitute the chief impurity although finely granular quartz or chalcedony is common locally. Soft powdery manganese oxide coats many fractures and in places is associated with a fine white clay.
Fluorspar was deposited in or adjacent to open spaces along the late Tertiary (?) faults. Fractures in hard granitic rocks tended to remain open after faulting and were the favored sites for fluorspar deposition; fractures in the less competent hornblende and hornblende-biotite gneiss and schist generally were tight and little fluorspar was deposited. The White River rocks, although soft, were permeable and were widely impregnated or replaced by fluorspar.
Both of the main vein zones are along faults that have predominant rightlateral strike-slip displacement. As they theoretically should be, the vein zones are narrower and contain less fluorspar where the containing fault is deflected to the left than where the fault is deflected to the right and the fractures remained open.
The crustified, vuggy structure of the fluorspar and the common association with chalcedony or finely granular quartz suggest deposition in a very shallow environment, but no direct evidence bearing on the depth at which the fluorspar formed was seen. Fluorspar was deposited throughout a vertical range of 600 feet or more on each of the main vein zones, and for a vertical range of 1,050 feet for the district as a whole. None of the deposits had been bottomed at the time this report was prepared.
Exploration at depth beneath known ore bodies is favorable for developing large tonnages of fluorspar. The best possibilities for finding new ore bodies near the surface are along the northwestern and southeastern parts of the Fluorine-Camp Creek vein zone where large bodies of granitic rocks are intersected by the fault. These areas are generally mantled by a thick overburden, and have been inadequately tested so far.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/b1082F","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Colorado State Geological Survey Board and the Colorado Metal Mining Fund Board","usgsCitation":"Steven, T., 1960, Geology and fluorspar deposits, Northgate district, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082, Report: v, 99 p.; 4 Plates: 33.80 x 32.33 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/b1082F.","productDescription":"Report: v, 99 p.; 4 Plates: 33.80 x 32.33 inches or smaller","startPage":"323","endPage":"422","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":100010,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-15.pdf","text":"Plate 15","size":"1.58 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 15"},{"id":100007,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-12.pdf","text":"Plate 12","size":"8.26 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 12"},{"id":100008,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-13.pdf","text":"Plate 13","size":"1.27 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 13"},{"id":100009,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/plate-14.pdf","text":"Plate 14","size":"722 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 14"},{"id":172968,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":109304,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_20747.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"20747"},{"id":100006,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082f/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"8.19 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -106.33563995361328,\n 40.86965121139933\n ],\n [\n -106.19556427001953,\n 40.86965121139933\n ],\n [\n -106.19556427001953,\n 40.99855696412671\n ],\n [\n -106.33563995361328,\n 40.99855696412671\n ],\n [\n -106.33563995361328,\n 40.86965121139933\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adce4b07f02db6861aa","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Steven, Thomas A.","contributorId":57529,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Steven","given":"Thomas A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235187,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70220592,"text":"70220592 - 1960 - A comprehensive system of automatic computation in magnetic and gravity interpretation","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-05-20T19:20:02.92688","indexId":"70220592","displayToPublicDate":"1960-12-31T14:15:30","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1808,"text":"Geophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"A comprehensive system of automatic computation in magnetic and gravity interpretation","docAbstract":"In the interpretation of magnetic and gravity anomalies, downward continuation of fields and calculation of first and second vertical derivatives of fields have been recognized as effective means for bringing into focus the latent diagnostic features of the data. A comprehensive system has been devised for the calculation of any or all of these derived fields on modern electronic digital computing equipment. The integral for analytic continuation above the plane is used with a Lagrange extrapolation polynomial to derive a general determinantal expression from which the field at depth and the various derivatives on the surface and at depth can be obtained. It is shown that the general formula includes as special cases some of the formulas appearing in the literature. The process involves a \"once for all depths\" summing of grid values on a system of concentric circles about each point followed by application of the appropriate one or more of the 19 sets of coefficients derived for the purpose. Theoretical and observed multilevel data are used to illustrate the processes and to discuss the errors. The coefficients can be used for less extensive computations on a desk calculator.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Exploration Geophysicists","doi":"10.1190/1.1438736","usgsCitation":"Henderson, R., 1960, A comprehensive system of automatic computation in magnetic and gravity interpretation: Geophysics, v. 25, no. 3, p. 569-585, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1438736.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"569","endPage":"585","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":385806,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"25","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Henderson, R.G.","contributorId":72521,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Henderson","given":"R.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":816107,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010536,"text":"70010536 - 1960 - Crystal structure refinement of reedmergnerite, the boron analog of albite","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2026-02-26T15:42:39.897743","indexId":"70010536","displayToPublicDate":"1960-12-16T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3338,"text":"Science","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Crystal structure refinement of reedmergnerite, the boron analog of albite","docAbstract":"Ordering of boron in a feldspar crystallographic site T1(0) has been found in reedmergnerite, which has silicon-oxygen and sodium-oxygen distances comparable to those in isostructural low albite. If a simple ionic model is assumed, calculated bond strengths yield a considerable charge imbalance in reedmergnerite, an indication of the inadequacy of the model with respect to these complex structures and of the speculative nature of conclusions based on such a model.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science","doi":"10.1126/science.132.3442.1837","issn":"00368075","usgsCitation":"Clark, J.R., and Appleman, D., 1960, Crystal structure refinement of reedmergnerite, the boron analog of albite: Science, v. 132, no. 3442, p. 1837-1838.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"1837","endPage":"1838","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219699,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"132","issue":"3442","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059fcfde4b0c8380cd4e576","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Clark, J. R.","contributorId":55764,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Clark","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359127,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Appleman, D.E.","contributorId":44909,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Appleman","given":"D.E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359126,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70220494,"text":"70220494 - 1960 - Geological age of the Claypool site, northeastern Colorado","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-05-17T12:40:17.718636","indexId":"70220494","displayToPublicDate":"1960-10-01T07:35:55","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":700,"text":"American Antiquity","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Geological age of the Claypool site, northeastern Colorado","docAbstract":"Artifacts related to the Cody complex occur in medium-grained sand that is spread as a blanket eolian deposit a few feet thick in the Claypool site area, Washington County, Colorado. The artifact-bearing sand lacks noticeable dunal topography and lies unconformably on marl of Yarmouth age and on waterlaid coarse sand and fine gravel of Kansan age that underlie the marl. The deposits underlying the artifact-bearing sand are much too old to date the artifacts precisely, but the physical characteristics of the artifact-bearing sand suggest that it was deposited under conditions cool and dry, rather than warm and dry, possibly during retreat of Valders ice that began about 10,000 years ago. A moderately mature Brown Soil about 5 feet thick developed on the sand, possibly about 7000 to 5000 years ago during a moist phase of the Thermal Maximum. Thus, the artifacts are possibly 10,000 to 7000 years old. Deposits which overlie the artifact-bearing sand reflect several episodes of erosion and sedimentation that are inferred to represent climatic changes.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society for American Archaeology","doi":"10.2307/276202","usgsCitation":"Malde, H., 1960, Geological age of the Claypool site, northeastern Colorado: American Antiquity, v. 26, no. 2, p. 215-222, https://doi.org/10.2307/276202.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"215","endPage":"222","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":385675,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","otherGeospatial":"northeastern Colorado","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -106.083984375,\n 38.85682013474361\n ],\n [\n -102.0849609375,\n 38.85682013474361\n ],\n [\n -102.0849609375,\n 41.0130657870063\n ],\n [\n -106.083984375,\n 41.0130657870063\n ],\n [\n -106.083984375,\n 38.85682013474361\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"26","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-01-20","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Malde, H.E.","contributorId":65863,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Malde","given":"H.E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":815764,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70221796,"text":"70221796 - 1960 - The chief oxide-burgin area discoveries, East Tintic district, Utah; A case history","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-07-07T12:28:44.400442","indexId":"70221796","displayToPublicDate":"1960-07-07T07:25:53","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The chief oxide-burgin area discoveries, East Tintic district, Utah; A case history","docAbstract":"The Burgin shaft is in the Chief Oxide area of the E. Tintic district, Utah, and is about a mile E. of any previously known ore bodies; workings from it are currently developing a substantial amount of commercial Pb-Zn ore in several blind ore bodies that lie in folded Paleozoic carbonate rock concealed beneath a blanket of Eocene lava. This area was mapped by Tower and Smith of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1897 and again by Lindgren and Loughlin in 1911, but no detailed work was done until after 1943 when a field party headed by T.S. Lovering began a study of the entire E. Tintic district. The history of the development of exploration concepts is summarized under Historical Summary. The E. Tintic mining district is in the E.-central part of a N.-trending fault-block mountain range near the eastern margin of the Great Basin; dominant structures of the range are a N.-trending syncline on the W. and a less well exposed anticline on the E. Both folds are cut by an intersecting system of transcurrent strike-slip faults and by minor thrust faults and normal faults of moderate displacement. A strong W.-dipping thrust fault cuts the anticline a short distance E. of the fold axis, but is hidden by Eocene lava throughout the E. Tintic district. The pre-Tertiary rocks range from Lower Cambrian to Upper Mississippian and exceed 7,000 ft. in total thickness; they are dominantly marine limestone and dolomite except for a thick basal Cambrian quartzite. The Tertiary rocks are chiefly dacitic lavas and pyroclastic deposits that are intruded by moderately persistent dikes and irregular bodies of monzonite and quartz porphyry. Nearly all the faulting and folding took place before the extrusion of the lavas on a rugged Eocene erosion surface. At about the time of the intrusion of monzonitic magma, many of the faults in the Paleozoic rock were re-opened and in the overlying lava some fracturing took place which was later accented by hydrothermal alteration. Most of the ore mined in the E. Tintic district has come from Pb-Zn-Ag replacement bodies in shattered Jasperoidized hydrothermal dolomite at the intersection of low angle faults and steep mineralized NE.-trending cross fractures. The U.S. Geological Survey studies of 1943 to 1957 concentrated on detailed mapping of geology and alteration in the E. Tintic district, together with field and laboratory studies of the relation of alteration to stages of mineralization and ore deposition. Trenching and core drilling were carried on after World War II to aid in interpreting the subrhyolite geology, and the Chief Oxide area was 1 of 4 localities tested by drilling. Study of the fossils, lithology, and alteration shown here in a deep drill core, together with the knowledge of the regional geology, led to an essentially correct interpretation of subrhyolite structure in the strongly discordant underlying Paleozoic rocks in which a mineralized tear fault cuts a strong thrust fault, and to the conclusion that ore stage mineralization was present in substantial amounts in the Paleozoic rocks below the Chief Oxide alteration patch in the quartz latite lava. Subsequent geothermal and geochemical work strengthened this conclusion, and the recent development work of the Bear Creek Mining Company, which sank the Burgin shaft, has shown the presence of Pb-Zn-Ag ore of commercial grade in substantial amount in blind ore bodies below the lava blanket in the Chief Oxide area.
One of the problems of the wartime program of studies of domestic manganese deposits concerned the identification of, and modes of origin of the manganese oxide minerals. Of the hundreds of specimens of the oxides collected in the United States, the minerals of about 250 specimens were identified by X-ray analysis; complete chemical analyses were made of about 35 specimens and partial analyses of about 150 specimens. This report presents the conclusions that arise out of a review of the geologic environment under which the specimens were found. One conclusion of this review concerns the supergene vs. hypogene origin of the oxides. In order to reach conclusions concerning the supergene and hypogene origin of the 33 oxides of manganese recognized thus far, it was necessary to define the criteria that seemed usable.One group of oxides appears to be persistently supergene: groutite, hydrohausmannite, lithiophorite, rancieite, hetaerolite, hydrohetaerolite, chalcophanite, crednerite, woodruffite, and wad. Another group of oxides appears to have been formed only by hypogene processes: manganosite, hausmannite, pyrochroite, bixbyite, galaxite, jacobsite, franklinite, pyrophanite, and ilmenite. A third group of oxides appear to have been formed by supergene processes in some places and by hypogene processes in other places: manganite, pyrolusite, ramsdellite, cryptomelane, psilomelane, hollandite, braunite, and coronadite.Another conclusion concerns a genetic relation between: (1) veins of manganese oxides in the southwest, largely in Tertiary volcanic rocks, (2) bodies of oxides in travertine aprons near active hot springs, and inactive Pleistocene springs, and (3) stratified oxides, largely in late Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the southwest. From the features of these three groups of deposits of oxides and their geologic and geographic distribution, it appears that hot water from great depth rose on fractures in areas of volcanic activity, deposited oxides in the fractures, appeared at the surface as hot springs, deposited oxides in the aprons near the springs and continuing to local basins, deposited manganese oxides with local debris as persistent beds in sediments, partly or wholly of volcanic origin.
The Kalamazoo report area includes about 150 square miles of Kalamazoo County, Mich. The area is principally one of industry and commerce, although agriculture also is of considerable importance. It has a moderate and humid climate and lies within the Lake Michigan “snow belt”. Precipitation averages about 35 inches per year. Snowfall averages about 55 inches.
The surface features of the area were formed during and since the glacial epoch and are classified as outwash plain, morainal highlands, and glaciated channels or drainageways. The area is formed largely on the remnants of an extensive outwash plain, which is breached by the Kalamazoo River in the northeastern part and is dissected elsewhere by several small tributaries to the river. Most of the land drained by these tributaries lies within the report area. A small portion of the southern part drains to the St. Joseph River.
The Coldwater shale, which underlies the glacial deposits throughout the area, and the deeper bedrock formations are not tapped for water by wells and they have little or no potential for future development.
Deposits of glacial drift, which are the source of water to all the wells in the area, have considerable potential for future development. These deposits range in thickness from about 40 feet along the Kalamazoo River to 350 feet where valleys were eroded in the bedrock surface. Permeable outwash and channel deposits are the sources of water for wells of large capacity. The moraines are formed dominantly by till of lower permeability which generally yields small supplies of water, but included sand and gravel beds of higher permeability yield larger supplies locally.
The aquifers of the Kalamazoo area are recharged by infiltration of rainfall and snowmelt and by infiltration of surface waters induced by pumping of wells near the surface sources. Water pumped from most of the municipal well fields is replenished in part by such induced infiltration. Many of the industrial wells along the Kalamazoo River and Portage Creek are recharged in part from these streams. Locally, however, recharge from the streams is impeded, as their bottoms have become partly sealed by silt and solid waste matter.
Water levels fluctuate with seasonal and annual changes in precipitation and in response to pumping. Pumpage by the city of Kalamazoo increased from about 300 million gallons in 1880 to 4.6 billion gallons in 1957. Despite the fact that billions of gallons are pumped annually from well fields in the Axtell Creek area, water levels in this vicinity have declined only a few feet, as the discharge from the fields is approximately compensated by recharge from precipitation and surface water. Pumpage of ground water by industry in 1948 was estimated at about 14 billion gallons, but the use of ground water for industrial purposes has since declined.
Aquifer tests indicate that the coefficient of transmissibility of aquifers in the area ranges from as little as 18,000 to as high as 300,000 gpd (gallons per day) per foot, and that ground water occurs under watertable and artesian conditions.
The ground water is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type. It is generally hard to very hard and commonly contains objectionable amounts of iron. Locally, the water contains appreciable amounts of sulfate. Study of the chemical analyses of waters from the area show that all of the tributaries to the Kalamazoo River are fed primarily by ground-water discharge.
","language":"English","publisher":"Michigan Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Lansing, MI","collaboration":"Prepared cooperatively by the United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey ","usgsCitation":"Deutsch, M., Vanlier, K., and Giroux, P., 1960, Ground-water hydrology and glacial geology of the Kalamazoo area, Michigan: Progress Report 23, 22 p.","productDescription":"22 p.","costCenters":[{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":335226,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":335225,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-PR23_216205_7.PDF","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Michigan","otherGeospatial":"Kalamazoo area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -85.70228576660156,\n 42.200038266046754\n ],\n [\n -85.70228576660156,\n 42.38619069220356\n ],\n [\n -85.49114227294922,\n 42.38619069220356\n ],\n [\n -85.49114227294922,\n 42.200038266046754\n ],\n [\n -85.70228576660156,\n 42.200038266046754\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58a2d3c5e4b0c82512869a4c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Deutsch, Morris","contributorId":69119,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Deutsch","given":"Morris","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668368,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Vanlier, K.E.","contributorId":24332,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Vanlier","given":"K.E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668369,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Giroux, P.R.","contributorId":59055,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Giroux","given":"P.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668370,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70160871,"text":"70160871 - 1960 - Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Kauai, Hawaii","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-01-06T08:58:28","indexId":"70160871","displayToPublicDate":"1960-01-01T12:15:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":242,"text":"Bulletin","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":4}},"seriesNumber":"13","title":"Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Kauai, Hawaii","docAbstract":"Kauai is one of the oldest, and is structurally the most complicated, of the Hawaiian Islands. Like the others, it consists principally of a huge shield volcano, built up from the sea floor by many thousands of thin flows of basaltic lava. The volume of the Kauai shield was on the order of 1,000 cubic miles. Through much of its growth it must have resembled rather closely the presently active shield volcano Mauna Loa, on the island of Hawaii. When the Kauai volcano started its growth is not known with certainty, but it is believed that activity started late in the Tertiary period, possibly in the early or middle part of the Pliocene epoch. Growth of the shield was rapid and probably was completed before the end of the Pliocene.
Toward the end of the growth of the shield, its summit collapsed to form a broad caldera, the largest that has been found in the Hawaiian Islands. Like the calderas of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, that of Kauai volcano had boundaries that were, in part, rather indefinite. The principal depression was bordered by less depressed fault blocks, some of which merged imperceptibly with the outer slopes of the volcano. Elsewhere the caldera rim was low, and flows spilled over it onto the outer slopes. The well-defined central depression of the Kauai caldera was approximately 10 to 12 miles across.
At about the same time as the formation of the major caldera, another, smaller caldera was formed by collapse around a minor eruptive center on the southeastern side of the Kauai shield. Lavas accumulated in the calderas, gradually filling them and burying banks of talus that formed along the foot of the boundary cliffs. The caldera-filling lavas differed from those that built the major portion of the shield in being much thicker and more massive as a result of ponding in the depressions. The petrographic types for the most part are the same throughout. Both the flank flows that built most of the shield and the flows that filled the calderas are predominantly olivine basalt. Picrite-basalt (oceanite), containing very abundant large phenocrysts of olivine, and basalt containing little or no olivine are present but together comprise less than 10 percent of the whole. Late in the period of filling of the major caldera a small amount of basaltic andesine andesite was extruded.
Near the end of the period of filling of the major caldera further collapse occurred, forming a large graben on the southwestern side of the shield. Lava flows erupting within the caldera poured southwestward over the cliff bounding the graben and spread over the gently sloping graben floor. Near the present Waimea Canyon their advance was obstructed by the fault scarp at the west edge of the graben. The cliff along the northeast edge of the graben eventually was buried by lava flows from within the caldera, but that along the west edge continued to stand above the level of the flows in the graben. The flows that accumulated in the graben are of the same types as those that filled the caldera, and like them are mostly thick and massive because of ponding by the graben walls and of the gentle slopes of the graben floor over which they spread.
The rocks of the major Kauai shield volcano are known as the Waimea Canyon volcanic series. The thin flows that accumulated on the flanks of the shield, which compose the major portion of the volcanic edifice, are named the Napali formation of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series. The rocks that accumulated in the big summit caldera are named the Olokele formation, and those that filled the small caldera on the southeast flank of the shield are named the Haupu formation. The volcanic rocks accumulated in the graben on the southwestern side of the shield are named the Makaweli formation of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series, and sedimentary rocks interbedded with them are known as the Mokuone member of the Makaweli formation.
Few vents of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series have been recognized, probably because most of them have been destroyed by erosion or are buried by later lavas. Large numbers of dikes cut the lavas of the Napali formation along Waimea Canyon and the Napali Coast and along the east edge of the Waialeale massif. Fewer dikes are found in the other members of the series. Some tendency toward radial arrangement of the dikes is present, but the dominant trend all over the island is east-northeastward.
Another great collapse took place on the eastern flank of the volcano at about the time the major shield became extinct, or shortly afterward. A subcircular graben 6 or 7 miles across sank several thousand feet, forming a broad depression between the Waialeale massif on the west and Kalepa and Nonou ridges on the east. This collapsed structure cannot be as clearly demonstrated as the Makaweli graben on the southwest side of the shield, because its walls have been greatly eroded and its floor is deeply buried by lavas of the later Koloa volcanic series. It appears, however, to be the only reasonable explanation of the physiography of the eastern side of the island.
After the completion of the great Kauai shield came a long period of erosion during which no volcanic activity occurred. Waves cut high sea cliffs around the island, and streams cut canyons as much as 3,000 feet deep. Thick soil formed over much of the mountain.
Then volcanism was renewed. Eruption occurred from a series of minor vents arranged in nearly north-south and northeast-southwest lines across the eastern two-thirds of the island. The lavas, cinder cones, and ash beds of this period of volcanism are known as the Koloa volcanic series. Lavas of the Koloa volcanic series include olivine basalt, picrite-basalt (mimosite) with few phenocrysts of olivine, basanite, nepheline basalt, melilite-nepheline basalt, and ankaratrite (nepheline basalt very rich in pyroxene and olivine). Inclusions of dunite, composed almost entirely of olivine, are common in flows of the Koloa. Just before and during the eruption of the Koloa volcanic series, voluminous landslides and mudflows brought down a large amount of rock debris and soil from the steep slopes of the mountainous central upland and deposited it as breccias at the foot of the steep slopes in valley heads and along the border of the marginal lowland. Streams distributed part of the material across the lowland. The breccias and conglomerates thus formed, and later buried by lavas of the Koloa volcanic series, are named the Palikea formation of the Koloa volcanic series.
The structures formed at Koloa vents include cinder cones, one tuff cone, and lava cones. The latter are miniature shields resembling the major shield volcano, formed by repeated outpourings of fluid lava. The tuff cone, at the west side of Kilauea Bay, was formed by phreatomagmatic explosions caused by rising magma coming in contact with water-saturated rocks.
Volcanism during Koloa time continued for a long period but was not continuous over the entire area. Locally, long periods of quiet occurred, allowing streams to re-excavate some of the canyons filled by earlier flows of the Koloa volcanic series, and weathering to form soils later buried by new flows. Some of the canyons thus formed during the time when the Koloa was being deposited were several hundred feet deep. Volcanism probably continued throughout most of the Pleistocene epoch. The latest flow of the Koloa volcanic series appears very recent, and rests on lithified calcareous dunes formed during one of the Pleistocene low stands of the sea.
During the Pleistocene epoch stream valleys and sea cliffs were eroded to base levels governed by one or more stands of the sea more than 100 feet below present sea level. Beaches of calcareous sand were formed, and the sand blown inland to form calcareous dunes, now lithified. A test boring near Moloaa penetrated calcareous sand 160 feet below sea level, at the foot of a high sea cliff. Coral reef also was built around part or all of the island, and in part buried by lavas of the Koloa volcanic series. The explosions that built the tuff cone at Kilauea Bay threw up fragments of limestone from a buried reef. Much of the apron of lavas of the Kalna series around the northeastern side of the island probably rests on a platform formed below present sea level by wave erosion and the growth of coral reef.
As the sea rose around the island, the valley mouths were alluviated. Several levels of the sea higher than the present one probably are represented. Some stream terraces may be graded to a stand of the sea as high as 260 feet above present sea level, but no positive evidence for stands higher than 25 feet have been found. Well-preserved shorelines are recognized approximately 25 and 5 feet above sea level. Much of the present coral reef appears to have been formed when the sea stood about 5 feet higher than now, and reduced to its present level by solutional weathering and wave erosion.
The lavas of the Napali formation of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series are highly permeable. They carry basal water over much of the island, and yield it freely to wells. This water is fresh everywhere except very close to the coast on the leeward side of the island. In some areas they may contain water confined at high levels between dikes. The lavas of the Olokele and Haupu formations are moderately to poorly permeable. They probably contain fresh water at sea level, but would not yield it readily to wells. Locally, ash beds perch small bodies of fresh water at high levels in the lavas of the Olokele formation, but these are of no economic importance. The lavas of the Makaweli formation also arc moderately to poorly permeable. They carry fresh or brackish water at sea level. In general, they yield water to wells less readily than the lavas of the Napali formation, but more readily than the lavas of the Olokele. The conglomerates and breccias of the Mokuone member are poorly permeable, but are not known to perch more than a slight amount of water in the overlying lavas,
The lava flows of the Koloa volcanic series are poorly to moderately permeable. They carry fresh or brackish water at sea level, but generally yield it slowly to wells. Locally, small bodies of fresh water are perched at high levels in the lavas of the Koloa by beds of ash and soil and by breccia and conglomerate of the Palikea formation.
Both the older and the younger alluvium generally are poorly permeable, but contain small amounts of fresh or brackish water. The lithified calcareous dunes are permeable, but they appear to contain only brackish water. Lagoon deposits on the Mana plain are poorly to moderately permeable and yield brackish water to wells.
The resolution of CsI(Tl) for Po210 alpha particles has been measured as a function of crystal thickness. The best resolution of a ½‐in. diam cylindrical crystal was obtained for a thickness of 0.38 mm, and the effect of thickness on the resolution is discussed. Based on the proposed model, a conical crystal was designed, which yielded a line width of 1.8% for Po210 alpha particles with a selected photomultiplier tube.
","language":"English","publisher":"AIP Publishing","doi":"10.1063/1.1717121","usgsCitation":"Martinez, P., and Senftle, F.E., 1960, Effect of crystal thickness and geometry on the alpha-particle resolution of CsI (Tl): Review of Scientific Instruments, v. 31, no. 9, p. 974-977, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1717121.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"974","endPage":"977","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219463,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"31","issue":"9","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a05cde4b0c8380cd50f82","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Martinez, P.","contributorId":38706,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Martinez","given":"P.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359086,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Senftle, F. E.","contributorId":47788,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Senftle","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359087,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70010620,"text":"70010620 - 1960 - Determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-08-31T16:04:51.909499","indexId":"70010620","displayToPublicDate":"1960-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks","docAbstract":"A modified niobium thiocyanate spectrophotometric procedure relatively insensitive to titanium interference is presented. Elements such as tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and rhenium, which seriously interfere in the spectrophotometric determination of niobium, are separated by simple sodium hydroxide fusion and leach; iron and magnesium are used as carriers for the niobium. Tolerance limits are given for 28 elements in the spectrophotometric method. Specific application is made to the determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks. The granite G-1 contains 0.0022% niobium and the diabase W-1 0.00096% niobium.","language":"English","publisher":"ACS Publications","doi":"10.1021/ac60157a035","usgsCitation":"Grimaldi, F.S., 1960, Determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks: Analytical Chemistry, v. 32, no. 1, p. 119-121, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60157a035.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"119","endPage":"121","numberOfPages":"3","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219247,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"32","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059ffb9e4b0c8380cd4f365","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Grimaldi, F. S.","contributorId":94286,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Grimaldi","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359278,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1035,"text":"wsp1483 - 1959 - Geology and ground-water resources of the upper Lodgepole Creek drainage basin, Wyoming, with a section on chemical quality of the water","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-09-20T16:00:17","indexId":"wsp1483","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1483","title":"Geology and ground-water resources of the upper Lodgepole Creek drainage basin, Wyoming, with a section on chemical quality of the water","docAbstract":"The principal sources of ground-water supply in the upper Lodgepole Creek drainage basin-the part of the basin west of the Wyoming-Nebraska State line-are the Brule formation of Oligocene age, the Arikaree formation of Miocene age, the Ogallala formation of Pliocene age, and the unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age. \r\n\r\nThe Brule formation is a moderately hard siltstone that generally is not a good aquifer. However, where it is fractured or where the upper part consists of pebbles of reworked siltstone, it will yield large quantities of water to wells. Many wells in the Pine Bluffs lowland, at the east end of the area, derive water from the Brule. The Arikaree formation, which consists of loosely to moderately cemented fine sand, will yield small quantities of water to wells but is not thick enough or permeable enough to supply sufficient water for irrigation. Only a few wells derive water from it. The Ogallala formation consists of lenticular beds of clay, silt, sand, and gravel which, in part, are cemented with calcium carbonate. Only the lower part of the formation is saturated. Nearly all the wells in the upland part of the area tap the Ogallala, but they supply water in amounts sufficient for domestic and stock use only. Two of the wells have a moderately large discharge, and other wells of comparable discharge probably could be drilled in those parts of the upland where the saturated part of the Ogallala is fairly thick. Most of the unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age are very permeable and, where a sufficient thickness is saturated, will yield large quantities of water to wells. These deposits are a significant source of water supply in the southeastern part of the area. \r\n\r\nThe Chadron formation of Oligocene age, which underlies the Brule formation, is a medium- to coarse-grained sandstone where it crops out in the Islay lowland. No wells tap the Chadron, but it probably would yield small quantities of water to wells. It lies at a relatively shallow depth beneath most of the Islay lowland, near the west end of the area, and at a depth of about 800 feet beneath the Pine Bluffs lowland. In the latter area it probably is finer grained and may not be permeable enough to yield water to wells. All the ground water in the area is derived from precipitation. It is estimated that about 5 percent of the precipitation infiltrates directly to the zone of saturation. The remainder either is evaporated immediately; is retained by the soil, later to be evaporated or transpired; or is discharged by overland flow to the surface drainage courses. Most of the water that reaches the surface drainage courses eventually sinks to the zone of saturation or is evaporated. The slope of the water table and the movement of ground water are generally eastward. The depth to water ranges from less than 10 feet in parts of the valley to about 300 feet in the upland areas. In much of the Pine Bluffs lowland, the depth to water is less than 50 feet. Ground water not pumped from wells within the area is discharged by evapotranspiration where the water table is close to the land surface, by outflow into streams, or by underflow eastward beneath the State line. \r\n\r\nThe chemical quality of ground water from the principal sources is remarkably uniform, and the range in concentration of dissolved constituents is narrow. In general, the water is of the calcium bicarbonate type, is hard (hardness as CaC03 is as high as 246 ppm), and contains less than about 400 parts per million of dissolved solids, which is a moderate mineralization. Silica constitutes a large proportion of the dissolved solids. \r\n\r\nThe water is suitable for irrigation and, except for iron in water from some wells that tap the Ogallala formation, meets the drinking water standards of the U.S. Public Health Service for chemical constituents. Because the water is siliceous, alkaline, and hard, it is unsuitable for many industrial uses unless treated.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1483","usgsCitation":"Bjorklund, L.J., Krieger, R.A., and Jochens, E.R., 1959, Geology and ground-water resources of the upper Lodgepole Creek drainage basin, Wyoming, with a section on chemical quality of the water: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1483, iv, 40 p. :maps (2 fold. in pocket) diagr., tables. ;25 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1483.","productDescription":"iv, 40 p. :maps (2 fold. in pocket) diagr., tables. ;25 cm.","costCenters":[{"id":5050,"text":"WY-MT Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":137967,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1483/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":25672,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1483/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25673,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1483/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":25674,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1483/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad9e4b07f02db6852ae","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Bjorklund, Louis Jay","contributorId":21138,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bjorklund","given":"Louis","email":"","middleInitial":"Jay","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143068,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Krieger, R. A.","contributorId":11202,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Krieger","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143067,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Jochens, E. R.","contributorId":101250,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jochens","given":"E.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143069,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":1908,"text":"wsp1422 - 1959 - Geology and ground-water resources of Medina County, Texas","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-08-22T10:48:15","indexId":"wsp1422","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1422","title":"Geology and ground-water resources of Medina County, Texas","docAbstract":"The Edwards limestone of Cretaceous age is the principal water-bearing formation in Medina County and makes up the major part of a ground-water reservoir, or aquifier, which in places includes thinner limestone formations both above and below the Edwards. The Glen Rose limestone, also of Cretaceous age, yields moderate amounts of water to wells and springs in the northern part of the county. Other Cretaceous formations, including the Austin chalk, Anacacho limestone, and Escondido formation, yield only small amounts of water, and that of the Austin and Escondido is of generally inferior quality.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1422","usgsCitation":"Holt, C., 1959, Geology and ground-water resources of Medina County, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1422, Report: vi, 213 p.; 6 Plates, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1422.","productDescription":"Report: vi, 213 p.; 6 Plates","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":583,"text":"Texas Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":27205,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27206,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27207,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27208,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27209,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27210,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27211,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":138553,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1422/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":109945,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_24377.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"24377"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adbe4b07f02db685a28","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Holt, Charles Lee Roy","contributorId":19139,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Holt","given":"Charles Lee Roy","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144348,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1948,"text":"wsp1476 - 1959 - Investigations of Sediment Transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebraska: With Application of Data from Turbulence Flume","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:22","indexId":"wsp1476","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1476","title":"Investigations of Sediment Transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebraska: With Application of Data from Turbulence Flume","docAbstract":"An investigation of fluvial sediments of the Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebr., was begun in 1946 and expanded in 1949 to provide information on sediment transportation. Construction of an artificial turbulence flume at which the total sediment discharge of the Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebr., could be measured with suspended-sediment sampling equipment was completed in 1949. Since that time. measurements have been made at the turbulence flume and at several selected sections in a reach upstream and downstream from the flume. The Middle Loup River upstream from Dunning traverses the sandhills region of north-central Nebraska and has a drainage area of approximately 1,760 square miles. The sandhills are underlain by the Ogallala formation of Tertiary age and are mantled by loess and dune sand. The topography is characterized by northwest-trending sand dunes, which are stabilized by grass cover. The valley floor upstream from Dunning is generally about half a mile wide, is about 80 feet lower than the uplands, and is composed of sand that was mostly stream deposited. The channel is defined by low banks. Bank erosion is prevalent and is the source of most of the sediment load. The flow originates mostly from ground-water accretion and varies between about 200 and 600 cfs (cubic feet per second). Measured suspended-sediment loads vary from about 200 to 2,000 tons per day, of which about 20 percent is finer than 0.062 millimeter and 100 percent is finer than 0.50 millimeter. Total sediment discharges vary from about 500 to 3,500 tons per day, of which about 10 percent is finer than 0.062 millimeter, about 90 percent is finer than 0.50 millimeter, and about 98 percent is finer than 2.0 millimeters. The measured suspended-sediment discharge in the reach near Dunning averages about one-half of the total sediment discharge as measured at the turbulence flume. \r\n\r\nThis report contains information collected during the period October 1, 1948, to September 30, 1952. The information includes sediment discharges; particle-size analyses of total load, of measured suspended sediment, and of bed material; water discharges and other hydraulic data for the turbulence flume and the selected sections. \r\n\r\nSediment discharges have been computed with several different formulas, and insofar as possible, each computed load has been compared with data from the turbulence flume. Sediment discharges computed with the Einstein procedure did not agree well, in general, with comparable measured loads. However, a satisfactory representative cross section for the reach could not be determined with the cross sections that were selected for this investigation. If the computed cross section was narrower and deeper than a representative cross section for the reach, computed loads were high; and if the computed cross section was wider and shallower than a representative cross section for the reach, computed loads were low. Total sediment discharges computed with the modified Einstein procedure compared very well with the loads of individual size ranges and the measured total loads at the turbulence flume. Sediment discharges computed with the Straub equation averaged about twice the measured total sediment discharge at the turbulence flume. Bed-load discharges computed with the Kalinske equation were of about the right magnitude; however, high computed loads were associated with low total loads, low unmeasured loads, and low concentrations of measured suspended sediment coarser than 0.125 millimeter. Bed-load discharges computed with the Schoklitsch equation seemed somewhat high; about one-third of the computed loads were slightly higher than comparable unmeasured loads. Although, in general, high computed discharges with the Schoklitsch equation were associated with high measured total loads, high unmeasured loads, and high concentrations of measured suspended sediment coarser than 0.125 millimeter, the trend was not consistent. Bed-load discharges computed ","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Geological Survey (U.S.)","doi":"10.3133/wsp1476","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation as part of a program of the Department of the Interior \r\nfor development of the Missouri River basin","usgsCitation":"Hubbell, D.W., and Matejka, D.Q., 1959, Investigations of Sediment Transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebraska: With Application of Data from Turbulence Flume: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1476, vi, 123 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1476.","productDescription":"vi, 123 p.","costCenters":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":138428,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27279,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247069,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-06.pdf","size":"869","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247070,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-07.pdf","size":"1038","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247071,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-08.pdf","size":"2110","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247072,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-09.pdf","size":"4117","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247073,"rank":412,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-10.pdf","size":"4227","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247074,"rank":413,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-11.pdf","size":"3435","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247075,"rank":414,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-12.pdf","size":"1509","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247076,"rank":415,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-13.pdf","size":"3463","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4afde4b07f02db696b8a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hubbell, David Wellington","contributorId":88330,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hubbell","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"Wellington","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144418,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Matejka, Donald Quintin","contributorId":103658,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Matejka","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"Quintin","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144419,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":15967,"text":"ofr59108 - 1959 - Impact mechanics at Meteor Crater, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:13","indexId":"ofr59108","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"59-108","title":"Impact mechanics at Meteor Crater, Arizona","docAbstract":"Meteor Crator is a bowl-shaped depression encompassed by a rim composed chiefly of debris stacked in layers of different composition. Original bedrock stratigraphy is preserved, inverted, in the debris. The debris rests on older disturbed strata, which are turned up at moderate to steep angles in the wall of the crater and are locally overturned near the contact with the debris. These features of Meteor Crater correspond closely to those of a crater produced by nuclear explosion where depth of burial of the device was about 1/5 the diameter of the resultant crater.\r\n\r\nStudies of craters formed by detonation of nuclear devices show that structures of the crater rims are sensitive to the depth of explosion scaled to the yield of the device. The structure of Meteor Crater is such as would be produced by a very strong shock originating about at the level of the present crater floor, 400 feet below the original surface.\r\n\r\nAt supersonic to hypersonic velocity an impacting meteorite penetrates the ground by a complex mechanism that includes compression of the target rocks and the meteorite by shock as well as hydrodynamic flow of the compressed material under high pressure and temperature. The depth of penetration of the meteorite, before it loses its integrity as a single body, is a function primarily of the velocity and shape of the meteorite and the densities and equations of state of the meteorite and target. The intensely compressed material then becomes dispersed in a large volume of breccia formed in the expanding shock wave.\r\n\r\nAn impact velocity of about 15 km/sec is consonant with the geology of Meteor Crater in light of the experimental equation of state of iron and inferred compressibility of the target rocks. The kinetic energy of the meteorite is estimated by scaling to have been from 1.4 to 1.7 megatons TNT equivalent.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr59108","usgsCitation":"Shoemaker, E.M., 1959, Impact mechanics at Meteor Crater, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 59-108, ii, 55 p. :ill. (some folded), maps (some folded) ;28 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr59108.","productDescription":"ii, 55 p. :ill. (some folded), maps (some folded) ;28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":106297,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_7949.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"7949"},{"id":149112,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":44926,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44927,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44928,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44929,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44930,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44931,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44932,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-7.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44933,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49cfe4b07f02db5da76e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Shoemaker, Eugene Merle","contributorId":20342,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Shoemaker","given":"Eugene","email":"","middleInitial":"Merle","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":172022,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":3095,"text":"wsp1469 - 1959 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":22843,"text":"ofr5636 - 1956 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","indexId":"ofr5636","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":3095,"text":"wsp1469 - 1959 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","indexId":"wsp1469","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":44087,"text":"ofr5466 - 1954 - Table showing estimated ground-water storage capacity of the San Joaquin Valley, California, and map showing ground-water storage units in the San Joaquin Valley","indexId":"ofr5466","publicationYear":"1954","noYear":false,"title":"Table showing estimated ground-water storage capacity of the San Joaquin Valley, California, and map showing ground-water storage units in the San Joaquin Valley"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":3095,"text":"wsp1469 - 1959 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","indexId":"wsp1469","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California"},"id":2}],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:30","indexId":"wsp1469","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1469","title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","docAbstract":"The San Joaquin Valley includes roughly the southern two-thirds of the Great \r\nCentral Valley of California. It is a broad structural trough surrounded by \r\nmountains. The northern part of the valley drains through the San Joaquin \r\nRiver northward to San Francisco Bay ; the southern part of the valley normally \r\nis a basin of interior drainage tributary to evaporation sumps in the trough of \r\nthe valley, chiefly Tulare and Buena Vista Lake beds. \r\nIn years of normal discharge most of the streamflow in the southern part of \r\nthe valley not diverted for irrigation finds its way to Tulare and Buena Vista \r\nLake beds. In the historic past, however, during years of heavy floods the low \r\ndivide between Buena Vista and Tulare Lakes and the low divide between \r\nTulare Lake and the San Joaquin River were overtopped and through-flowing \r\ndrainage occurred over the full length of the valley. Because the Tulare Lake \r\nbed is the lowest point and also the largest sump, this whole basin of interior \r\ndrainage is commonly referred to as the Tulare Lake drainage basin. \r\nAverage annual precipitation ranges from more than 15 inches in the north- \r\neastern part of the valley to less than 4 inches in the southwestern part. The \r\nprecipitation decreases from north to south and from east to west across the \r\nvalley. Streamflow, the critical quantity in the water supply, depends almost \r\nwholly on the amount and distribution of precipitation in the Sierra Nevada to \r\nthe east. Much of this precipitation falls as snow, and the snowpack acts as a \r\nnatural reservoir retaining much of the annual runoff until late spring and early \r\nsummer. \r\nThe mean seasonal runoff to the San Joaquin Valley is nearly 10 million acre- \r\nfeet, of which about two-thirds is tributary to the San Joaquin River; the remaining third is tributary to Tulare Lake drainage basin. In 1952 about 8.5 \r\nmillion acre-feet of surface water was diverted for irrigation. Withdrawals of \r\nground water for irrigation in 1952 approximated 7.5 million acre-feet. \r\nThe surface of the San Joaquin Valley is not a featureless plain but is characterized by various types of physiography such as dissected uplands, low \r\nalluvial plains and fans, river flood plains and channels, and overflow lands \r\nand lake bottoms. \r\nThe dissected uplands fringe the valley along its mountain borders. They are \r\nunderlain by unconsolidated to semiconsolidated continental deposits of late \r\nTertiary and early Quaternary age which have been moderately tilted and \r\nfolded. The topography of these uplands ranges from deeply dissected hill land \r\nhaving a relief of several hundred feet to gently rolling land whose relief Is only \r\na few feet. \r\nThe low plains and fans border the dissected uplands along their valley- \r\nward margins. They are generally fiat to gently undulating and featureless and are underlain by undeformed to slightly deformed alluvial deposits of \r\nQuaternary age. \r\nThe river flood plains and channels lie along the San Joaquia and Kings \r\nRivers in the axial part of the valley and along the major east-side streams. \r\nWhere the rivers are incised below the general land surface, the flood plains are \r\nwell defined; but in the axial trough of the valley, where the rivers are flanked \r\nby low-lying overflow lands, the flood-plain and channel deposits are confined to \r\nthe stream channel and to the natural levees that slope away from the river. \r\nOverflow lands and lake bottoms include the historic beds of Tulare, Buena \r\nVista, and Kern Lakes in the southern part of the valley, and the low-lying lands \r\nin the axial trough between the low alluvial plains and fans and the natural \r\nlevees of the San Joaquin River and its major tributaries. They are level and \r\nfeatureless and are underlain by lake and swamp deposits of Recent age. \r\nThe San Joaquin Valley is a great structural downwarp between the tilted \r\nblock of the Sierra Nevada on the east and the complexly folded and faulted \r\nCoast Ranges on the we","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1469","usgsCitation":"Davis, G.H., Green, J.H., Olmsted, F.H., and Brown, D.W., 1959, Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1469, viii, 287 p. :diagrs., tables. and portfolio (fold. maps (part col.) diagrs., profiles) ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1469.","productDescription":"viii, 287 p. :diagrs., tables. and portfolio (fold. maps (part col.) diagrs., profiles) ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138655,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":29978,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-01.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29979,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-02.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29980,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-03.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29981,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-04.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29982,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-05.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29983,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-06.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29984,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-07.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29985,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-08.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29986,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-09.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29987,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-10.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29988,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-11.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29989,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-12.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29990,"rank":412,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-13.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29991,"rank":413,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-14.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29992,"rank":414,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-15.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29993,"rank":415,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-16.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29994,"rank":416,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-17.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29995,"rank":417,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-18.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29996,"rank":418,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-19.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29997,"rank":419,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-20.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29998,"rank":420,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-21.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29999,"rank":421,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-22.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30000,"rank":422,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-23.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30001,"rank":423,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-24.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30002,"rank":424,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-25.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30003,"rank":425,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-26.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30004,"rank":426,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-27.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30005,"rank":427,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-28.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30006,"rank":428,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-29.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30007,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66d330","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Davis, G. H.","contributorId":40963,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Davis","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146265,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Green, J. H.","contributorId":43312,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Green","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":146266,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Olmsted, F. H.","contributorId":24765,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Olmsted","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146264,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Brown, D. W.","contributorId":63370,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brown","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146267,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":2564,"text":"wsp1472 - 1959 - Hydrologic budget of the Beaverdam Creek basin, Maryland","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:29","indexId":"wsp1472","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1472","title":"Hydrologic budget of the Beaverdam Creek basin, Maryland","docAbstract":"A hydrologic budget is a statement accounting for the water gains and losses for selected periods in an area. Weekly measurements of precipitation streamflow, surface-water storage, ground-water stage, and soil resistivity were made during a 2year period, April 1, 1950, to March 28, 1952, in the Beaverdam Creek basin, Wicomico County, Md. The hydrologic measurements are summarized in two budgets, a total budget and a ground-water budget, and in supporting tables and graphs. \r\n\r\nThe results of the investigation have some potentially significant applications because they describe a method for determining the annual replenishment of the water supply of a basin and the ways of water disposal under natural conditions. The information helps to determine the 'safe' yield of water in diversion from natural to artificial discharge. The drainage basin of Beaverdam Creek was selected because it appeared to have fewer hydrologic variables than are generally found. However, the methods may prove applicable in many places under a variety of conditions. \r\n\r\nThe measurements are expressed in inches of water over the area of the basin. The equation of the hydrologic cycle is the budget balance: P= R+E+ASW+ delta SW + delta SM + delta GW where P is precipitation; R is runoff; ET is evapotranspiration; delta SW is change in surface-water storage; delta SM is change in soil moisture; and delta GW is change in ground-water storage. In this report 'change' is the final quantity minus the initial quantity and thus is synonymous with 'increase.' Further, ,delta GW= delta H .x Yg, \r\n\r\nin which delta H is the change in ground-water stage and Yg is the gravity yield, or the specific yield of the sediments as measured during the short periods of declining ground-water levels characteristic of the area. The complex sum of the revised equation P ? R - delta SW ? ET - delta SM, which is equal to delta H. x Yg, has been named the \r\n\r\n'infiltration residual'; it is equivalent to ground-water recharge. Two unmeasured, but not entirely unknown, quantities, evapotranspiration, (ET) and gravity yield, (Yg), are included in the equation. They are derived statistically by a method of convergent approximations, one of the contributions of this investigation. \r\n\r\nOn the basis of laboratory analysis, well-field tests, and general information on rates of drainage from saturated sediments, a gravity yield of 14 percent was assumed as a first approximation. The equation was then solved, by weeks, for evapotranspiration, ET. The evapotranspiration losses were plotted against the calendar week. Using the time of year as a control, a smooth curve was fitted to the evapotranspiration data, and modified values of ET were read from the curve. These were used to compute weekly values of the infiltration residual which were plotted against ground-water stage. The slope of the line of best fit gave a closer approximation of gravity yield, Yg. The process was repeated. The approximations converged, so that a fourth and final approximation resulted in a close grouping of all the points along a line whose slope indicated a Yg of 11.0 percent, and a slightly asymmetric bell-shaped curve of total evapotranspiration by weeks was obtained that is considered representative of this area. Check calculations of gravity yield were made during periods of low evapotranspiration and high infiltration, which substantiate the computed average of 11.0 percent. \r\n\r\nRefinements in the method of deriving the ground-water budget were introduced to supplement the techniques developed by Meinzer and Stearns in the study of the Pomperaug River basin in Connecticut in 1913 and 1916. The hydrologic equation for the ground-water cycle may be written Gr=D + delta H. x Yg + ETg, in which Gr is ground-water recharge (infiltration); D is ground-water drainage; delta H is the change in mean ground-water stage (final stage minus initial stage); Yg is gravity yield (taken as 11.0 percent in computations here); an","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. G.P.O.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1472","usgsCitation":"Rasmussen, W.C., and Andreasen, G., 1959, Hydrologic budget of the Beaverdam Creek basin, Maryland: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1472, v, 106 p., [2] leaves of plates :ill., maps ;25 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1472.","productDescription":"v, 106 p., [2] leaves of plates :ill., maps ;25 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138583,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":247225,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-05.pdf","size":"561","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247226,"rank":412,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-06.pdf","size":"502","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247227,"rank":413,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-07.pdf","size":"1090","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247228,"rank":414,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-10.pdf","size":"424","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247222,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-01.pdf","size":"1134","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247223,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-03.pdf","size":"576","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247224,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/plate-04.pdf","size":"749","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":28830,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1472/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a28e4b07f02db611692","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rasmussen, W. C.","contributorId":62201,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rasmussen","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145405,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Andreasen, Gordon E.","contributorId":94272,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Andreasen","given":"Gordon E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145406,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":2391,"text":"wsp1460G - 1959 - Ground-water resources of the lower Niobrara River and Ponca Creek basins, Nebraska and South Dakota","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":10806,"text":"ofr5794 - 1957 - Preliminary estimate of the underflow across the South Dakota-Nebraska State line in the Niobrara River and Ponca Creek drainage basins","indexId":"ofr5794","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"title":"Preliminary estimate of the underflow across the South Dakota-Nebraska State line in the Niobrara River and Ponca Creek drainage basins"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":2391,"text":"wsp1460G - 1959 - Ground-water resources of the lower Niobrara River and Ponca Creek basins, Nebraska and South Dakota","indexId":"wsp1460G","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"chapter":"G","title":"Ground-water resources of the lower Niobrara River and Ponca Creek basins, Nebraska and South Dakota"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-12-30T22:10:07.828778","indexId":"wsp1460G","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1460","chapter":"G","title":"Ground-water resources of the lower Niobrara River and Ponca Creek basins, Nebraska and South Dakota","docAbstract":"This report describes the area in north-central Nebraska and south-central South Dakota drained by Ponca Creek and by the Niobrara River below Valentine, Nebr. The Niobrara River and Ponca Creek are neighboring eastward flowing tributaries of the Missouri River. The Dakota sandstone of Cretaceous age is the oldest formation tapped by wells; the water it yields to wells in small to moderate quantities is rather highly mineralized and very hard; it is unsuitable for irrigation and most domestic uses. Overlying the Dakota, in ascending order, are the following formations of Cretaceous age: the Graneros shale, Greenhorn limestone, Carlile shale, Niobrara formation, and Pierre shale. None of these is a source of water supply. The Niobrara is the oldest formation exposed, cropping out in only the deeper valleys at the eastern end of the area. The Pierre shale, which is exposed much more extensively, crops out in the deeper valleys throughout nearly all the area.
\nExcept where the Niobrara River, its major tributaries, and Ponca Creek have cut their valleys into them, the Cretaceous rocks are overlain by semiconsolidated rocks of Tertiary age. Two Tertiary formations, the Brule and the Ogallala, are present in the area. The Brule formation underlies all the western part of the area and is exposed in the valleys of both the Niobrara and Keya Paha Rivers. The Ogallala formation, which overlaps the Brule, forms the upland on both sides of the river and is exposed in many places. The Brule is not a source of water supply, whereas the Ogallala yields small to moderately large quantities of water to many wells on the upland. The water in the Ogallala is of the calcium bicarbonate type and is moderately mineralized and hard.
\nUnconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age mantle the Tertiary rocks throughout nearly all the upland area south of the Niobrara River and in parts of the upland area north of the river. They also floor the Niobrara River valley. Where saturated, these sediments, which consist of stream-deposited sand and gravel and wind-deposited sand, yield small to large amounts of water to wells. The water in the Quaternary deposits is of the calcium bicarbonate type but is less mineralized and softer than that in the Ogallala.
\nThe only significant source of recharge to the Dakota sandstone in the report area is underflow from the west. Except for waiter yielded to wells tapping the Dakota, water in the formation is discharged from the area by underflow to the east. In the upland part of the area, the Ogallala formation and the overlying deposits of Quaternary age constitute a single aquifer, water moving from one Into the other without apparent hindrance. This aquifer is recharged principally by the direct infiltration of precipitation but in part also by underflow from the west and south and by seepage from intermittent streams and ponds. Water is discharged from the upland aquifer by outflow through springs or seepage into streams, through the process of evapotranspiration, and by wells when they are pumped. Ground water leaves the report area by underflow where the Quaternary deposits in the valleys of the Niobrara River and Ponca Creek merge with the Quaternary deposits in the Missouri River valley.
\nIn places where the Niobrara formation, the Pierre shale, or the Brule formation is at the surface or is mantled by thin deposits of the Ogallala or thin deposits of Quaternary age, only meager amounts of ground water can be obtained unless wells are deep enough to tap the Dakota sandstone. Elsewhere the Ogallala formation and the deposits of Quaternary age generally yield ample water for domestic and stock supplies, and in some places, notably in the vicinity of Ainsworth, they yield enough water for irrigation. Additional large supplies of ground water could be obtained on the upland in the southwestern and west-central parts of the area.
\nThe report contains an annotated bibliography of previous publications on the geology and ground-water resources of the area, brief descriptions of the Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary rocks, a map showing the contour of the water table, logs of test holes and wells not published elsewhere, results of analyses of ground- and surface-water samples, and records of all wells of large discharge and representative wells of small discharge.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Washington, DC","doi":"10.3133/wsp1460G","usgsCitation":"Newport, T., and Krieger, R.A., 1959, Ground-water resources of the lower Niobrara River and Ponca Creek basins, Nebraska and South Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1460, iv, 323 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1460G.","productDescription":"iv, 323 p.","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":109946,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_24392.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"24392"},{"id":28368,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1460g/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":139185,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1460g/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Nebraska, North Dakota","otherGeospatial":"Niobrara River, Ponca Creek","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -101.063232421875,\n 42.22851735620852\n ],\n [\n -101.063232421875,\n 43.29320031385282\n ],\n [\n -98.074951171875,\n 43.29320031385282\n ],\n [\n -98.074951171875,\n 42.22851735620852\n ],\n [\n -101.063232421875,\n 42.22851735620852\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a96e4b07f02db65a5ba","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Newport, Thomas G.","contributorId":93462,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Newport","given":"Thomas G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145125,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Krieger, Robert A.","contributorId":99954,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Krieger","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145124,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":4757,"text":"wsp1473_ed1 - 1959 - Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-11-25T11:55:33","indexId":"wsp1473_ed1","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1473","title":"Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water","docAbstract":"The chemical composition of natural water is derived from many different sources of solutes, including gases and aerosols from the atmosphere, weathering and erosion of rocks and soil, solution or precipitation reactions occurring below the land surface, and cultural effects resulting from activities of man. Some of the processes of solution or precipitation of minerals can be closely evaluated by means of principles of chemical equilibrium including the law of mass action and the Nernst equation. Other processes are irreversible and require consideration of reaction mechanisms and rates. The chemical composition of the crustal rocks of the earth and the composition of the ocean and the atmosphere are significant in evaluating sources of solutes in natural fresh water.
\nThe ways in which solutes are taken up or precipitated and the amounts present in solution are influenced by many environmental factors, especially climate, structure and position: of rock strata, and biochemical effects associated with life cycles of plants and animals, both microscopic and macroscopic. Taken all together and in application with the further influence of the general circulation of all water in the hydrologic cycle, the chemical principles and environmental factors form a basis for the developing science of natural-water chemistry.
\nFundamental data used in the determination of water quality are obtained by the chemical analysis of water samples in the laboratory or onsite sensing of chemical properties in the field. Sampling is complicated by changes in composition of moving water and the effects of particulate suspended material. Most of the constituents determined are reported in gravimetric units, usually milligrams per liter or milliequivalents per liter.
\nMore than 60 constituents and properties are included in water analyses frequently enough to provide a basis for consideration of the sources from which each is generally derived, most probable forms of elements and ions in solution, solubility controls, expected concentration ranges and other chemical factors. Concentrations of elements that are commonly present in amounts less than a few tens of micrograms per liter cannot always be easily explained, but present information suggests many are controlled by solubility of hydroxide or carbonate or by sorption on solid particles.
\nChemical analyses may be grouped and statistically evaluated by averages, frequency distributions, or ion correlations to summarize large volumes of data. Graphing of analyses or of groups of analyses aids in showing chemical relationships among waters, probable sources of solutes, areal water-quality regimen, and water-resources evaluation. Graphs may show water type based on chemical composition, relationships among ions, or groups of ions in individual waters or many waters considered simultaneously. The relationships of water quality to hydrologic parameters, such as stream discharge rate or ground-water flow patterns, can be shown by mathematical equations, graphs, and maps.
\nAbout 75 water analyses selected from the literature are tabulated to illustrate the relationships described, and some of these, along with many others that are not tabulated, are also utilized in demonstrating graphing and mapping techniques.
\nRelationships of water composition to source rock type are illustrated by graphs of some of the tabulated analyses. Activities of man may modify water composition extensively through direct effects of pollution and indirect results of water development, such as intrusion of sea water in ground-water aquifiers.
\nWater-quality standards for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use have been published by various agencies. Irrigation project requirements for water quality are particularly intricate.
\nFundamental knowledge of processes that control natural water composition is required for rational management of water quality.
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States\"}}]}","edition":"1st edition","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db699d0c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hem, John David","contributorId":42577,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hem","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"David","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":149725,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":15238,"text":"ofr5991 - 1959 - A field method of spectrographic analysis for use in geochemical exploration work","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-07-26T22:13:14.883114","indexId":"ofr5991","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"59-91","title":"A field method of spectrographic analysis for use in geochemical exploration work","docAbstract":"The method to be described is a modification of an earlier method of semiquantitative procedure. Through its use 34 elements can be determined simultaneously in one sample, which may be a rock, soil, mineral, or an ore. For many of these elements concentration ranges from one to ten thousand parts per million (0.0001 to 1 percent) or more can be investigated (see table 1). The modification in the method is the addition of 20mg of a CaCO3-graphite mixture (1:5) on top of the sample-graphite powder. This addition gives a smoother burning arc and minimizes sample loss during arcing, so that the former variability of results is also minimized. The improved procedure has been tested in a truck-mounted spectrographic laboratory constructed and used by the U. S. Geological Survey in geochemical exploration.
No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"GSA","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[225:YPAWAP]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"Hamilton, W., 1959, Yellowstone Park area, Wyoming: A possible modern Lopolith: GSA Bulletin, v. 70, no. 2, p. 225-228, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[225:YPAWAP]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"225","endPage":"228","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":377024,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Montana, Wyoming","otherGeospatial":"Yellowstone National Park","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -111.258544921875,\n 43.59630591596548\n ],\n [\n -108.97338867187499,\n 43.59630591596548\n ],\n [\n -108.97338867187499,\n 45.22074260255366\n ],\n [\n -111.258544921875,\n 45.22074260255366\n ],\n [\n -111.258544921875,\n 43.59630591596548\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"70","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hamilton, W.","contributorId":46683,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hamilton","given":"W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":794802,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70211614,"text":"70211614 - 1959 - History of Imuruk Lake, Seward Peninsula, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-08-05T14:17:27.877505","indexId":"70211614","displayToPublicDate":"1959-08-04T14:00:21","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1723,"text":"GSA Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"History of Imuruk Lake, Seward Peninsula, Alaska","docAbstract":"A study of Imuruk Lake, a large, shallow lake in north-central Seward Peninsula, Alaska, illuminates the climatic history of northwestern Alaska and the tectonic history of central Seward Peninsula during Pleistocene and Recent time. Special interest attaches to the older lake sediments, because they contain evidence concerning the climate, fauna, and flora that existed in the vicinity of Bering Strait at a time when the Bering land bridge was open and when animal and plant populations were being exchanged between the eastern and western hemispheres.
The lake is 8 miles long and less than 10 feet deep; bottom sediments consisting of reworked wind-blown silt bury a rolling bedrock topography of much greater relief. Analysis of the hydrologic regime indicates that much of the water draining into the lake is lost by evaporation; smaller quantities are lost by discharge through the outlet, the Kugruk River, and by leakage into the lava flows along the lake shore. Changes in the duration and temperature of the summer ice-free season would result in changes in the amount of water lost by evaporation and thus in appreciable changes in lake level.
Imuruk Lake occupies an initial low area on basaltic lava flows of Quaternary age, but the initial low area has been modified by faulting and now lies in a poorly defined graben. Topographic evidence confirmed by study of lacustrine terraces indicates that until recently Imuruk Lake drained westward into the Noxapaga River instead of eastward into the Kugruk River. A history of repeated warping of the lake basin, on which is superimposed a history of oscillating lake level which is due to changes in climate, is recorded by three systems of abandoned shore-line features found along the shores: a warped shore cliff of probable Illinoian age, a double set of warped terraces of probable Wisconsin age, and a low, horizontal terrace of Recent age. Bones of bison, horse, and mammoth were found in peaty sediments containing many twigs but no large wood; their presence indicates that these mammals, at least, were capable of surviving in a tundra environment during cold stages of the Pleistocene epoch and at a time when the Bering land bridge was in existence nearby.
The sediments filling the deeper parts of the bedrock basin of Imuruk Lake probably contain an uninterrupted pollen record that reflects vegetation changes in central Seward Peninsula beginning in middle Illinoian time and terminating a few thousand years ago. Core drilling and pollen analysis of these sediments would greatly amplify our understanding of late Pleistocene events in the vicinity of the Bering land bridge.
","language":"English","publisher":"GSA","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[1033:HOILSP]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"Hopkins, D., 1959, History of Imuruk Lake, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: GSA Bulletin, v. 70, no. 8, p. 1033-1046, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[1033:HOILSP]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"14 p.","startPage":"1033","endPage":"1046","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":377018,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Imuruk Lake, Seward Peninsula","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -168.57421875,\n 64.09140752262307\n ],\n [\n -160.048828125,\n 64.09140752262307\n ],\n [\n -160.048828125,\n 66.75724984139227\n ],\n [\n -168.57421875,\n 66.75724984139227\n ],\n [\n -168.57421875,\n 64.09140752262307\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"70","issue":"8","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hopkins, David M.","contributorId":37409,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hopkins","given":"David M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":794793,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70211607,"text":"70211607 - 1959 - Ground-water provinces of India","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-08-05T14:27:10.150024","indexId":"70211607","displayToPublicDate":"1959-08-04T11:27:24","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Ground-water provinces of India","docAbstract":"This paper gives a general resume of ground-water utilization and development and describes the occurrence of water in eight ground-water provinces of India. The paper is based in part on observations of the writer during 1951-55 and in part on earlier work of the Geological Survey of India. Ground water has been utilized extensively in India since before the beginning of the Christian era. Currently (1956) ground water is an important source of supply for domestic, stock, municipal, and industrial needs throughout the Republic and is widely used for irrigation in the Peninsular and Ganges-Brahmaputra regions west of longitude 85°. Dug, bored, and drilled wells are the principal means by which ground water is developed, although locally infiltration tunnels or improved springs are used. Methods of lifting or pumping water from wells include the hand line and bucket, the hand-lift pump, the counterpoised sweep, bullocks, and \"mote,\" the water wheel, horizontal and vertical centrifugal pumps, and deep-well turbine pumps. The most common device for lifting water for irrigation is still the time-honored bullock and \"mote\" (leather bag). However, in modern India there is increasing use of mechanical pumps. With respect to the occurrence of ground water, India can be divided into eight provinces, lying in three major regions, (1) the Peninsular region, (2) the Ganges-Brahmaputra region, and (3) the Himalayan region. The Peninsular region contains six ground-water provinces. Precambrian igneous, metamorphic, and indurated sedimentary rocks and early Tertiary volcanic rocks in three of these provinces yield many small supplies of water, which generally is of good quality but locally is brackish or salty. Cretaceous water-bearing sandstones in another province are moderately productive and in places are developed for large water supplies. Late Tertiary and Quaternary water-bearing sands and gravels in two other provinces sustain many small water supplies and several large water supplies-particularly in the coastal areas of southern India. The Ganges-Brahmaputra region is a single ground-water province in which many tens of thousands of small water supplies and several thousand large supplies are obtained from water-bearing sands and gravels in late Tertiary and Quaternary alluvium. This province constitutes a vast groundwater reservoir, which is the most productive in India. The Himalayan region also is considered as a single province, in which ground water occurs in a series of narrow valleys filled with moderately to highly permeable Quaternary alluvium. These alluvial valleys transmit large quantities of water to the ground-water reservoir in the Ganges-Brahmaputra region.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.54.4.683","usgsCitation":"Taylor, G., 1959, Ground-water provinces of India: Economic Geology, v. 54, no. 4, p. 683-697, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.54.4.683.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"683","endPage":"697","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":377011,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"India","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[77.83745,35.49401],[78.91227,34.32194],[78.81109,33.5062],[79.20889,32.99439],[79.17613,32.48378],[78.45845,32.61816],[78.73889,31.51591],[79.72137,30.88271],[81.11126,30.18348],[80.47672,29.72987],[80.08842,28.79447],[81.0572,28.4161],[81.99999,27.92548],[83.30425,27.36451],[84.67502,27.2349],[85.25178,26.7262],[86.02439,26.63098],[87.22747,26.3979],[88.06024,26.41462],[88.1748,26.81041],[88.04313,27.44582],[88.12044,27.87654],[88.73033,28.08686],[88.81425,27.29932],[88.83564,27.09897],[89.74453,26.7194],[90.37327,26.87572],[91.21751,26.80865],[92.03348,26.83831],[92.10371,27.45261],[91.69666,27.77174],[92.50312,27.89688],[93.41335,28.64063],[94.56599,29.27744],[95.4048,29.03172],[96.11768,29.4528],[96.58659,28.83098],[96.24883,28.41103],[97.32711,28.26158],[97.40256,27.88254],[97.05199,27.69906],[97.134,27.08377],[96.41937,27.26459],[95.12477,26.57357],[95.15515,26.00131],[94.60325,25.1625],[94.55266,24.67524],[94.10674,23.85074],[93.32519,24.07856],[93.28633,23.04366],[93.06029,22.70311],[93.16613,22.27846],[92.67272,22.04124],[92.14603,23.6275],[91.86993,23.62435],[91.70648,22.98526],[91.15896,23.50353],[91.46773,24.07264],[91.91509,24.13041],[92.3762,24.97669],[91.7996,25.14743],[90.87221,25.1326],[89.92069,25.26975],[89.83248,25.96508],[89.35509,26.01441],[88.56305,26.44653],[88.20979,25.76807],[88.93155,25.23869],[88.30637,24.86608],[88.08442,24.50166],[88.69994,24.23371],[88.52977,23.63114],[88.87631,22.87915],[89.03196,22.05571],[88.88877,21.69059],[88.2085,21.70317],[86.9757,21.49556],[87.03317,20.74331],[86.49935,20.15164],[85.06027,19.47858],[83.94101,18.30201],[83.18922,17.67122],[82.19279,17.01664],[82.19124,16.55666],[81.69272,16.31022],[80.792,15.95197],[80.3249,15.89918],[80.02507,15.13641],[80.23327,13.83577],[80.28629,13.00626],[79.86255,12.05622],[79.858,10.35728],[79.34051,10.30885],[78.88535,9.54614],[79.18972,9.21654],[78.27794,8.93305],[77.94117,8.25296],[77.5399,7.96553],[76.59298,8.89928],[76.13006,10.29963],[75.74647,11.30825],[75.3961,11.78125],[74.86482,12.74194],[74.61672,13.99258],[74.44386,14.61722],[73.5342,15.99065],[73.11991,17.92857],[72.82091,19.20823],[72.82448,20.4195],[72.63053,21.35601],[71.17527,20.75744],[70.47046,20.87733],[69.16413,22.0893],[69.64493,22.45077],[69.3496,22.84318],[68.17665,23.69197],[68.8426,24.35913],[71.04324,24.35652],[70.8447,25.2151],[70.28287,25.72223],[70.16893,26.49187],[69.51439,26.94097],[70.6165,27.9892],[71.77767,27.91318],[72.82375,28.96159],[73.45064,29.97641],[74.42138,30.97981],[74.40593,31.69264],[75.25864,32.27111],[74.45156,32.7649],[74.10429,33.44147],[73.74995,34.3177],[74.2402,34.74889],[75.75706,34.50492],[76.87172,34.65354],[77.83745,35.49401]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"India\"}}]}","volume":"54","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1959-06-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Taylor, George C.","contributorId":45693,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Taylor","given":"George C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":794779,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70211565,"text":"70211565 - 1959 - Tritium and deuterium content of atmospheric hydrogen","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-07-30T20:13:25.785545","indexId":"70211565","displayToPublicDate":"1959-07-30T15:05:17","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5989,"text":"Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung A","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Tritium and deuterium content of atmospheric hydrogen","docAbstract":"The tritium and deuterium content of 24 samples of atmospheric hydrogen collected at ground level near Buffalo. N.Y. (U.S.A.). Hamburg (Germany), and Nürnberg (Germany) during 1954 to 1956 was measured.
At the beginning of 1954 the T/H-ratio was found to have been 9.18 · 10-14 i.e. about a factor of 10 higher than 1949 (FALTINGS and HARTECK) and 1951 (v. GROSSE et al.), probably due to the first explosion of a thermonuclear device in November 1952. In spite of a major test series of thermonuclear weapons in spring of 1954 (Operation CASTLE) no further increase in the tritium content was found during 1954 and 1955. It shows instead a seasonal variation with low tritium content in summer and about a threefold higher one in winter. Simultaneously, there is a good correlation between the tritium and deuterium concentrations. From 1956 on a noticeable increase in the tritium content due to more man-made HT produced or released by thermonuclear devices into the atmosphere was found, in agreement with measurements by GONSIOR. A possible explanation of the experimental results as well as a mode to test the validity of the model suggested is given.
The deuterium concentrations of the samples analysed vary between about +7 percent and –17 percent, compared to Standard Lake Michigan Water with a ratio D/H = 0.0148 ± 0.0002 mol percent. Although from these results only a correlation factor between the tritium and deuterium content of “mean atmospheric hydrogen” and not their absolute values can be derived it is obvious that atmospheric hydrogen and the water vapour of the atmosphere are not in thermodynamic equilibrium, as has been pointed out before by HARTECK and SUESS.
","language":"English","publisher":"De Gruyter","doi":"10.1515/zna-1959-1204","usgsCitation":"Begemann, F., and Friedman, I., 1959, Tritium and deuterium content of atmospheric hydrogen: Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung A, v. 14, no. 12, p. 1024-1031, https://doi.org/10.1515/zna-1959-1204.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"1024","endPage":"1031","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":480395,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515/zna-1959-1204","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":376924,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"14","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2014-06-02","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Begemann, F.","contributorId":236898,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Begemann","given":"F.","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":12534,"text":"Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":794634,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Friedman, Irving","contributorId":90664,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Friedman","given":"Irving","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":794635,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ]}