{"pageNumber":"1622","pageRowStart":"40525","pageSize":"25","recordCount":40777,"records":[{"id":39151,"text":"pp292 - 1957 - Geology of the southern Elkhorn Mountains, Jefferson and Broadwater Counties, Montana","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-02-23T12:32:11","indexId":"pp292","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"292","title":"Geology of the southern Elkhorn Mountains, Jefferson and Broadwater Counties, Montana","docAbstract":"

The geology of an area of about 270 square miles in the southern Elkhorn Mountains, west of Townsend in west-central Montana, is described. The mountains in the southern part of the area comprise northward-trending alternating ridges and valleys underlain principally by folded sedimentary rocks. They merge northward into the higher and more rugged main mass of the mountains, which is underlain principally by upper Cretaceous volcanic rocks. The mountaintops are 1,000 to 4,500 feet above the major valleys.

The sedimentary rocks range in age from Precambrian to Tertiary and the igneous rocks from late Cretaceous to probably middle Tertiary. The oldest rocks are varicolored mudstone, shale, and sandstone of the Belt series of late Precambrian age. They are overlain with slight unconformity by a moderately thick but incomplete section of Paleozoic rocks. The basal Paleozoic formation is the Flathead quartzite of Middle Cambrian age, which is overlain by alternating units of shale and carbonate rock : the Wolsey shale, the Meagher limestone, the Park shale, the Pilgrim dolomite, and the Red Lion formation, all of Cambrian age. A slight erosional unconformity between the Red Lion formation and the Maywood formation of late Devonian age marks a long interval of crustal stability in the area. The Maywood is overlain by the Jefferson dolomite and the Three Forks shale of Late Devonian and Mississippian age, and these in turn are conformably overlain by the Lodgepole and Mission Canyon limestones, a thick carbonate sequence of Mississippian age. A slight erosional unconformity separates the Mission Canyon limestone from the Amsden formation, which probably includes beds of both Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age. The Amsden is composed of a heterogeneous assemblage of arenaceous, argillaceous, dolomitic, and calcareous rocks and grades upward into the Quadrant formation of Pennsylvanian age, an alternation of quartzitic sandstone and dolomite. At the top of the Paleozoic section is the Phosphoria formation of Permian age, a thin unit of chert and quartzitic sandstone that contains a few thin phosphate beds.

The basal Mesozoic unit is the Swift formation of late Jurassic age, a thin calcareous marine sandstone that overlies the Phosphoria with slight erosional unconformity. It is overlain by nonmarine shale and sandstone of the Morrison formation of late Jurassic age and the Kootenai formation of Early Cretaceous age. The Kootenai is overlain, possibly with slight erosional unconformity, by the Colorado formation an assemblage of marine dark shale and siliceous mudstone and nonmarine quartz-chert sandstone. The Colorado formation as here used includes beds of both Early and Late Cretaceous age. The Colorado in places grades upwards into a sequence of feldspathic sandstone and tuff beds here named the Slim Sam formation. Elsewhere within the area, the Slim Sam formation is absent, probably in part owing to erosion and in part nondeposition. Where present, the Slim Sam grades upward into a thick sequence of andesitic and quartz latitic volcanic rocks, comprising tuffs, lapilli tuffs, breccias, welded tuffs and flows, that are here named the Elkhorn Mountains volclinics and are probably entirely of Cretaceous age. Where the Slim Sam formation is absent, the Elkhorn Mountains volcanics rest with angular unconformity on beds as old as the Morrison. 

The pre-Tertiary layered rocks, aggregating more than 15,000 feet in thickness, were folded and intruded by igneous rocks of several types, and the area was uplifted and eroded to a terrain of mature relief, similar to that of the present. During the Oligocene epoch, volcanic sediments with interbreds of nonvolcanic gravel accumulated. These beds were in turn moderately eroded, and gravel of Miocene ( ?) age was deposited in channels within them. Subsequently, probably during the Pliocene epoch, the Tertiary beds were weakly deformed locally, and a pediment was cut across the Tertiary and older rocks in the southern part of the area. Fan gravel, in part of Recent origin and in part older, blankets parts of the pediment. Glacial deposits of at least two stages of Pleistocene glaciation are present in the higher mountains in the northern part of the area.

The intrusive igneous rocks, except for a few felsite dikes of uncertain age, are divisible into two groups, primarily on the basis of structural relations and secondarily on the basis of composition and fabric. The older group of dioritic and andesitic rocks were intruded in part, if not wholly, prior to the main folding and are similar in chemical and mineralogical composition to the Elkhorn Mountains volcanics. They were probably emplaced throughout the period of volcanism that commenced in late Niobrara time and continued until late Cretaceous time. The younger group consists chiefly of quartzbearing phanerites but includes rocks ranging from gabbro to alaskitic granite and aplite. These rocks were emplaced after the main episode of folding and faulting. The Boulder batholith, composed dominantly of quartz monzonite, is the principal body of this younger group.

The older igneous rocks metamorphosed the invaded rocks only slightly. In contrast, the younger intrusive bodies, and especially the batholith, altered and recrystallized the country rock in moderately broad belts, changing them to various types of hornfels, calcsilicate rock, marble, and vitreous quartzite. Concomitantly magnetite, garnet, axinite, and other high-temperature replacement minerals formed locally as products of additive metamorphism.

The pre-Tertiary layered rocks of the southern Elkhorn Mountains are folded into northward-trending folds and are cut by many faults. The sedimentary rocks tend to be more tightly folded than the Elkhorn Mountains volcanics, although both were involved in the major folding. The principal folds of the area from east to west are : a major dome, a complex syncline with several second-order folds, and a remnant of a northward-plunging anticline, the major part of which was engulfed by the batholith. The folded rocks are cut by many faults of small to moderate displacement and by two faults of large displacement. Most of the faults were probably formed by the same forces that produced the folds. The origin of the two major faults, however, is uncertain, and may be related to igneous activity. The batholith crosscuts the folded structure and is in turn cut by small faults. Some parts of the area were elevated along steep normal faults in late Tertiary time. 

The southern part of the Elkhorn Mountains has been mountainous at least since early Oligocene time, and probably began to take form during the Cretaceous. As a consequence of long continued erosion, the modern topography reflects the structure and lithologic character of the underlying rocks except in a few areas blanketed by poorly consolidated Tertiary rocks and in the higher mountains where glaciation has been prominent.

Silver, lead, zinc, and gold have been produced, either singly or, more typically, as a combination of metals from a number of types of ore deposits. Replacement deposits in carbonate rocks are the most common type, but veins, contact metamorphic deposits, and pipelike bodies of breccia cemented by ore and gangue minerals also are present. The Elkhorn mining district has the largest number of mines and the greatest variety of types of deposits. In the Tizer Basin several narrow goldbearing veins cut andesitic volcanic rocks, and in the southern part of the area sporadic small veins and replacement deposits occur in carbonate rocks. The mines and prospects of the area are described, and some suggestions for future prospecting are outlined. The application of geochemical prospecting techniques may prove of value, judging from the results of reconnaissance soil sampling in the vicinity of the Elkhorn mine.

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The history of petroleum exploration in Alaska and the geology of possible petroleum provinces in Alaska are reviewed. Maps showing Alaska's major Mesozoic and Tertiary tectonic elements, possible petroleum provinces, and indications of petrol, are included in this report. Annotated references in Geological Survey publications relating to petroleum and oil shale in Alaska are given at the end of the report.

For the purpose of appraising its petroleum possibilities, Alaska is divided into the southern, central, and northern major geologic-physiographic regions.

Southern Alaska includes the arcuate mountain chain formed by the Alaska and Aleutian Ranges and the Mentasta- Nutzotin Mountains, the coastal range and valley area to the south, and the southeastern Alaska \"panhandle\" -- an area of 185,000 square miles.

Oil seeps on the west shore of Cook Inlet in southern Alaska were known as early as 1853, and claims were staked in this region in 1882. Drilling began near the oil seeps in the Katalla district about 1901, and this started Alaska's first period of oil activity. From 1902 to 1933 the Katalla field produced 154,000 barrels of oil from fractured shale and sandstone of Tertiary age the- first and only commercial production in Alaska.

On the basis of geology, surficial indications of petroleum, and test wells drilled, six possible petroleum provinces are indicated in southern Alaska. They are Heceta Island area, Keku Islands area, Cook Inlet Mesozoic province, Gulf of Alaska Tertiary province, Cook Inlet Tertiary province, and Copper River basin.

The exposed rocks in the Heceta Island area include lower Paleozoic graywacke-type sandstone, sandstone, conglomerate, and massive limestones with reeflike structures; igneous rocks are rare or lacking in much of the area. The Kosciusko-Tuxekan-Heceta synclinorium, the main structural feature, is modified by minor folds and faults. Some of the minor folds are reported to be broad and open, with flanks dipping 20°-145°. As far as known, the Heceta Island area has not heretofore been seriously considered as a possible petroleum province.

Rocks of Silurian to Cretaceous age are exposed in the Keku Island area and include moderately folded and relatively unaltered limestone and other marine sedimentary rocks.

The Cook Inlet Mesozoic province, a land area of approximately 18,500 square miles, includes a great thickness of unmetamorphosed marine sedimentary rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. At least 23 test wells were drilled or started in this province by the end of 1955. Shows of oil and gas were encountered in many of these wells. During 1955 at least ten oil companies were active in this area and by the end of 1955 about 1 1/2 million acres were included in oil and gas leases applied for or granted.

The Gulf of Alaska Tertiary province includes about 5,200 square miles in which rocks of Tertiary age are exposed or are believed to underlie Quaternary deposits. Between 1901 and the end of 1955 about 47 wells were drilled or started in this province.

The Cook Inlet Tertiary province embraces an area of about 9,500 square miles, of which about 4,100 is covered by the shallow waters of Cook Inlet. Petroleum exploration has been in that part of the area which overlaps the Cook Inlet Mesozoic province. Eocene or younger Tertiary nonmarine sedimentary rocks are believed to underlie much of the province, and marine rocks of Tertiary age may also be present.

The Copper River basin is a topographic basin underlain by unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age. Tertiary rocks favorable for the accumulation of petroleum may underlie part of the basin but this is not believed likely. Except for some leasing activity no petroleum exploration has been recorded in the Copper River Basin to the end of 1955.

Central Alaska is a region of about 275,000 square miles and consists of an irregular assemblage of intricately dissected uplands and alluvium-floored lowland basins. Scattered peaks of resistant intrusive igneous rocks surmount most of the upland areas.

In the vast region of central Alaska only six test wells are known to have been drilled for the purpose of finding oil and gas. The maximum depth reached was 350 feet and the holes were mostly or entirely in Quaternary deposits. In recent years several oil companies have investigated some parts of the region and large areas in the Yukon-Koyukuk province are now under lease. Oil seeps, gas seeps, and other indications of petroleum have been reported from many localities; samples from two localities have been analyzed and reported to be petroleum.

The geology of central Alaska is similar in a general way to that of the area between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra-Cascade belts of the United States. Sedimentary rocks, probably equivalent to the Precambrian Belt series, and rocks of the Cambrian and all younger geologic systems have been recognized in central Alaska. The structure of the region is known to be complex, but except in local mineral districts, it has not been mapped in detail. Based on the limited amount of available information, the region cannot be regarded as distinctly favorable for significant accumulations of petroleum. However, three pre-Cenozoic provinces, the Yukon-Koyukuk, the Kobuk, and the Kandik, and several large Cenozoic basin provinces may be worthy of further investigation.

Northern Alaska includes the Brooks Range and all the treeless tundra north to the Arctic Coast, an area of about 125,000 square miles. The presence of oil seeps along the Arctic Coast has been known at least since 1900 and a description of the Cape Simpson oil seeps vas published in 1909. Since then oil and gas seeps have been described from nine localities, and oil shales and oil-bearing sandstones are known from many localities in the Arctic Foothills province. Oil and gas deposits have been discovered and geologic conditions are favorable for oil and gas accumulations in approximately half of the region.

In 1923 approximately 37,000 square miles in northern Alaska was reserved by Executive order as Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4. In 1944 the U. S. Navy began a vast petroleum exploration program which was suspended in 1953. In the years 1945 through 1955, 37 test wells and 45 core tests were drilled on 18 structures. Three oil fields, Umiat, Simpson, and Fish Creek, and two gas fields, South Barrow and Gubik, were discovered. Total reserve estimates for all discoveries of oil to 1955 range from 30 to 100 million barrels, and for gas, from 370 billion to 900 billion cubic feet.

All northern Alaska, with the exception of the Brooks Range, can be considered a possible petroleum province, but the region can be subdivided into provinces of somewhat different potentialities. These subdivisions roughly correspond with the geomorphic provinces and sections, which in turn reflect differences in geology. The known oil-bearing beds are of Mesozoic age, primarily Cretaceous, and thus the possible petroleum provinces could be designated as Mesozoic. However, Paleozoic and Cenozoic rocks with favorable reservoir characteristics are exposed in the region and possibly underlie, in favorable structural situations, some of the areas as yet not tested.

The Arctic Coastal Plain province includes gently folded and flat-lying Mesozoic beds that overlie a basement complex of Paleozoic and early Mesozoic age. Near the southern edge of this province the basement rocks are at depths of at least 20,000 feet, and to the north these rocks rise to within 2,500 feet of the surface.

The Teshukpuk Lake section of the Arctic Coastal plain includes many of the known oil seeps; it is the most accessible to sea transportation, and lies almost completely within NPR 4. Thirteen test wells and 35 core tests have been drilled here; one gas field and two (at present, noncommercial) oil fields have been discovered. The possibility of further discoveries may depend largely on locating porous sandstones in stratigraphic rather than anticlinal traps.

The White Hills section is distinguished topographically from the Teshukpruk section by its white-gravel-covered hills and fever lakes, and geologically by the presence of Tertiary rocks, including 2,000 feet of nonmarine beds in the west and at least 7,000 feet of marine beds to the east, in the vicinity of Carter Creek. This section appears to be more complex structurally. No test wells have been drilled in the White Hills section.

The Northern Foothills section includes many closed anticlines. Twenty-four test wells and ten core tests have been drilled on 11 structures and two discoveries have been made -the Umiat oil field and the Gubik gas field. All these tests have been drilled in Cretaceous rocks.

The Southern Foothills section is structurally similar to the Alberta Foothills and to the northern part of the Brooks Range. Great thicknesses of marine shale of Lover Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic age are exposed. The outcropping Mesozoic sandstones are generally poorly sorted, nonporous, and impermeable. To the south the section is bordered by mountainous exposures of Mississippian limestone, which probably underlie at least part of this section.

The rocks that underlie the deeply eroded complex structures of the Brooks Range include schist, slate, argillite, and limestone. Some exposed limestones have a strong petroleum-like odor and contain traces of petroleum residues.



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Don John","contributorId":77120,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miller","given":"Don","email":"","middleInitial":"John","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170357,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Payne, Thomas G.","contributorId":60653,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Payne","given":"Thomas","email":"","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170356,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Gryc, George","contributorId":23942,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gryc","given":"George","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170355,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70207235,"text":"70207235 - 1957 - Notes on the structural geology of Puerto Rico","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-07-16T19:10:26.156538","indexId":"70207235","displayToPublicDate":"1957-12-31T14:33:44","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1723,"text":"GSA Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Notes on the structural geology of Puerto Rico","docAbstract":"

Two major structural and stratigraphic rock units occur in Puerto Rico: the older complex, ranging in known age from Late Cretaceous to late Paleocene or early Eocene and the middle Tertiary sequence, ranging from late Oligocene possibly to late Miocene. The former rocks are eugeosynclinal in character and are very badly faulted but for the most part apparently only moderately folded. With the exception of a large, partly low-angle thrust, the writer has not recognized evidence of strong tangential stresses. Intra-formational folding in the older complex is interpreted as caused by submarine sliding (slump structure). Except in the vicinity of the larger plutonic intrusions and in the northeastern and southwestern corners of the island, the main strike alignment of the older complex is northwestward. The plutons are roughtly concordant with the structure of the country rock and show varying degrees of differentiation. Their average composition seems to be more acidic than that of the volcanic and volcanogenetic rocks into which they are intruded. The middle Tertiary sequence is nonvolcanic, made up dominantly of calcareous marine sediments. It crops out on the north and south sides of the island and in structural troughs on the west coast. On the north coast the beds dip gently to the north, and, except for slight terracings and a flexure at the northwestern corner of the island, are not folded. The middle Tertiary sequence on the south side of the island is somewhat folded. Seismic-reflection studies of the north coast indicate, however, a pronounced northward thickening, possibly some folding, and unconformities at depth. Unconformities which may be local have also been noted at several places on the surface. Several large faults in the middle Tertiary sequence have been recognized in both the north- and south-coast belts. The pattern of master joints that is inferred in the north-coast middle Tertiary belt from topographic alignments seems to indicate (1) control by fades contacts, (2) possible downwarping associated with the sinking of an arm of the Puerto Rican Trench, and (3) tension during upwarping along the island axis. The dates of the major diastrophic events that are decipherable from the Puerto Rican data are: (1) early Tertiary (possibly late Paleocene, but more probably Eocene), when the older complex was deformed; (2) Miocene, when the middle Tertiary sequence was deformed; (3) late Pliocene and possibly early Pleistocene, when block faulting on a large scale produced the present topographic relief. Remnants of the fault scarps resulting from the latter deformation occur widely. Quaternary marine deposits and marine terraces suggest that Puerto Rico has been relatively unaffected by crustal movement at least since the late Pleistocene. 

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A.","contributorId":6003,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kaye","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":777384,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70206668,"text":"70206668 - 1957 - Lithofacies of the salt wash member of the Morrison Formation, Colorado plateau","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-11-15T06:59:33","indexId":"70206668","displayToPublicDate":"1957-12-31T06:54:03","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1786,"text":"Geological Society of America Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"displayTitle":"Lithofacies of the salt wash member of the Morrison Formation, Colorado plateau","title":"Lithofacies of the salt wash member of the Morrison Formation, Colorado plateau","docAbstract":"

The Salt Wash is the basal member of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in parts of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. Deposited by streams, it comprises lenticular beds of cross-laminated sandstone irregularly interbedded with mudstone, siltstone, claystone, and horizontally laminated sandstone. The term \"lithofacies,\" as used in this paper, denotes lithologic aspect. The specific lithofacies of the Salt Wash member at a given locality is determined by the thickness, proportion, and continuity of the stream and flood-plain deposits that make up the Salt Wash. Stream deposits include all rocks interpreted as deposited from moving water; flood-plain deposits include all rocks interpreted as deposited from slack water. Regional differences in lithofacies show that the Salt Wash member is a fan-shaped wedge of sedimentary rocks whose apex is in south-central Utah. Within the wedge, the thickness of the Salt Wash and the thickness, proportion, and continuity of the contained stream deposits decrease relatively uniformly to the north, northeast, and southeast of the apex. Interpretation of the regional differences in lithofacies indicates deposition by a distributary stream system whose apex was in south-central Utah and which spread sediments to the north, east, and southeast over a nearly flat plain. Irregularities on this plain near the Four Corners area and in west-central Colorado modified the distributary system, and therefore the wedge is not symmetrical. Most uranium-vanadium ore deposits in the Salt Wash member occur in a lithofacies near the center of the wedge. This may be a genetic relation and can be explained as a function of transmissibility of the particular lithofacies. The ore deposits, however, are concentrated in a relatively small part of the central lithofacies. Because local geologic features such as structure or igneous intrusions might control the localization of ore deposits in the small area, the high degree of correlation of ore deposits and a certain lithofacies may be coincidental. © 1957, The Geological Society of America, Inc.

","language":"English","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[505:LOTSWM]2.0.CO;2","issn":"00167606","usgsCitation":"Mullens, T.E., and Freeman, V.L., 1957, Lithofacies of the salt wash member of the Morrison Formation, Colorado plateau: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 68, no. 4, p. 505-526, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[505:LOTSWM]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"505","endPage":"526","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":369246,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States 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\"}}]}","volume":"68","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mullens, T. E.","contributorId":34573,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mullens","given":"T.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":775317,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Freeman, V. L.","contributorId":52958,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Freeman","given":"V.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":775318,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70213490,"text":"70213490 - 1957 - Discussion of “Application of the modified einstein procedure for computation of total sediment load”","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-09-17T20:50:43.190691","indexId":"70213490","displayToPublicDate":"1957-10-01T15:48:38","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1578,"text":"Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union","onlineIssn":"2324-9250","printIssn":"0096-394","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Discussion of “Application of the modified einstein procedure for computation of total sediment load”","docAbstract":"

Basically, any theory consists of a set of assumptions and various conclusions which are logically derived therefrom. An assumption, as the term is to be used here, may be based on an observed fact or relationship, a definition, an undefined (but generally accepted and understood) concept; or it may be based on a postulated relationship which has not been observed and may not even be directly observable. The conclusions of a theory in the physical sciences are, of course, intended to agree with and to predict observable facts. If a theory does not thus coincide with reality, it is eminently proper to examine the assumptions and the logical structure of the theory and, if possible, to modify the assumptions or correct the logic so that the conclusions do agree with observed facts.

","language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","doi":"10.1029/TR038i005p00768","usgsCitation":"Schroeder, K.B., and Hembree, C., 1957, Discussion of “Application of the modified einstein procedure for computation of total sediment load”: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v. 38, no. 5, p. 768-773, https://doi.org/10.1029/TR038i005p00768.","productDescription":"6 p.","startPage":"768","endPage":"773","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":378547,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"38","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2014-08-18","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Schroeder, K. B.","contributorId":240920,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Schroeder","given":"K.","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":799134,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hembree, C. H.","contributorId":106866,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hembree","given":"C. H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":799135,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70221359,"text":"70221359 - 1957 - Thermal waters of volcanic origin","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-11T13:23:35.475772","indexId":"70221359","displayToPublicDate":"1957-06-11T08:20:28","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1723,"text":"GSA Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Thermal waters of volcanic origin","docAbstract":"

Waters of widely differing chemical compositions have been considered at least in part volcanic in origin, and are commonly associated with each other in the same area. Do any or all of these types contain volcanic components, and if so, how are the different types derived?

To determine the probable characteristics of volcanic waters, the writer has selected hot-spring groups that are particularly high in temperature and associated heat flow, are associated with late Tertiary or Quaternary volcanism, and are therefore most likely to contain some water and chemical components of direct volcanic origin. Of the different types of water that occur in these groups, one of the most common is characterized chemically by a dominance of sodium chloride.

Isotopic evidence indicates that the contribution of water of direct volcanic origin is not large and is probably no more than 5 per cent in typical sodium-chloride springs.

The compositions of volcanic waters are believed to be determined by: [1] type of magma and stage of crystallization; [2] temperature and pressure of the emanation at different stages during and after departure from the magma; [3] chemical composition, relative quantity, and depth of penetration of mixing meteoric water and water of other origin; and [4] reactions with wall rocks. Although the type of magma and its stage of crystallization are of major interest and have been emphasized in the past, the outstanding characteristics of volcanic emanations at and near the surface of the earth seem to be controlled for the most part by the other factors.

Nonvolatile compounds are slightly to highly soluble in steam at high pressure, and high-density steam has solvent properties similar to those of liquid water. In the volcanic sodium-chloride waters, the high ratio of lithium to sodium and potassium is shown to indicate that alkalies were transported as alkali halides dissolved in a dense vapor. This in turn demands a deep circulation of meteoric water for steam to condense at high pressure and for the halides to remain in solution. The depth of circulation of meteoric water in the sodium-chloride spring systems is believed to be in the order of 2 miles. Where circulation of meteoric water is shallow, the vapors rise and expand at low pressure, which does not permit transport of substances of low volatility; some type of water other than the sodium-chloride type is formed. The common volcanic sodium-chloride waters are therefore concluded to be the diluted product of high-density emanations, modified by reactions with wall rocks and by precipitation of the less soluble components.

Emanations at high temperature and relatively low pressure consist almost entirely of steam and volatile components. Their compositions are therefore relatively simple, and their ability to transport matter of low volatility is very limited.

The sodium-chloride type is probably gradational into acid-sulfate-chloride waters. There is some evidence that, under conditions not well understood, sulfur may be emitted as SO2, SO3, or other sulfur species of intermediate valence, rather than as H2S or S. Other major types of volcanic waters are called sodium bicarbonate, acid sulfate, and calcium bicarbonate; the first two tend to be distinct, but the calcium-bicarbonate type clearly grades into the sodium-chloride type. The writer concludes that, in general, all these are derived from the sodium-chloride waters as a result of physical environment or of reactions with wall rocks.

","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"White, D.E., 1957, Thermal waters of volcanic origin: GSA Bulletin, v. 68, no. 12, p. 1637-1658, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"1637","endPage":"1658","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386422,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"68","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, Donald E.","contributorId":76787,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817420,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010722,"text":"70010722 - 1957 - Modified determination of radium in water","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-20T16:48:23.586049","indexId":"70010722","displayToPublicDate":"1957-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Modified determination of radium in water","docAbstract":"

The proposed method embodies a barium sulfate carrier precipitation, filtration through molecular filter membranes, and collection of activity after prescribed aging period. The method is sufficiently accurate and precise to indicate the potability of water and for use in general studies of radium in chemical hydrology. Amounts of radium as low as 0.1 μμc. can be detected by using 1 -hour counting times. Radium-226 is used as the standard and the results indicate about 100 to 110 % of the activity of the alpha-emitting radium isotopes as radium-223, radium-224, and radium-226.

","language":"English","publisher":"ACS Publications","doi":"10.1021/ac60131a003","usgsCitation":"Barker, F.B., and Thatcher, L.L., 1957, Modified determination of radium in water: Analytical Chemistry, v. 29, no. 11, p. 1573-1575, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60131a003.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"1573","endPage":"1575","numberOfPages":"3","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219556,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"29","issue":"11","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a5cc8e4b0c8380cd6ff3d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Barker, F. B.","contributorId":88709,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Barker","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359491,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Thatcher, L. L.","contributorId":23271,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thatcher","given":"L.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359490,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70010692,"text":"70010692 - 1957 - Modified zirconium-Eriochrome Cyanine R determination of fluoride","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-20T16:53:23.12817","indexId":"70010692","displayToPublicDate":"1957-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Modified zirconium-Eriochrome Cyanine R determination of fluoride","docAbstract":"The Eriochrome Cyanine R method for determining fluoride in natural water has been modified to provide a single, stable reagent solution, eliminate interference from oxidizing agents, extend the concentration range to 3 p.p.m., and extend the phosphate tolerance. Temperature effect was minimized; sulfate error was eliminated by precipitation. The procedure is sufficiently tolerant to interferences found in natural and polluted waters to permit the elimination of prior distillation for most samples. The method has been applied to 500 samples.","language":"English","publisher":"ACS Publications","doi":"10.1021/ac60131a047","usgsCitation":"Thatcher, L.L., 1957, Modified zirconium-Eriochrome Cyanine R determination of fluoride: Analytical Chemistry, v. 29, no. 11, p. 1709-1712, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60131a047.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"1709","endPage":"1712","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219473,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"29","issue":"11","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a5ce3e4b0c8380cd6ffe9","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Thatcher, L. L.","contributorId":23271,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thatcher","given":"L.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359437,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1000272,"text":"1000272 - 1957 - Structure and growth of scales of yellow perch of Green Bay","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-02-08T15:07:23","indexId":"1000272","displayToPublicDate":"1957-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3624,"text":"Transactions of the American Fisheries Society","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Structure and growth of scales of yellow perch of Green Bay","docAbstract":"

The appearance of the scales of yellow perch differs with the location on the fish's body. Comparison of scales of Green Bay perch taken above and below the lateral line reveals the former to have more sharply defined circuli and to exhibit fewer false annuli and less of the shading that impedes accurate assessment of age.

\n

Estimates of age from modes in length-frequency distributions and from scale readings were the same for age-groups O, I, and II. Older age groups could not be detected in length distributions, but the similarity of all annuli makes it acceptable to conclude that the annulus is in fact a year-mark at ages beyond the II group.

\n

Scales of yellow perch may exhibit new growth in the latter part of May whereas others may not have started growing even in late July. The time of annulus formation varies with calendar year, with age (new growth starts earlier in the younger fish), and possibly with locality. Ages usually can be read from scales collected during the period of annulus formation, but occasionally difficulties are encountered.

\n

For larger yellow perch the relation between fish length and the radius of key scales was described by a straight line with a 2-inch intercept on the length axis when the scales were taken above the lateral line and by a straight line through the origin when the scales came from below the lateral line. Lengths calculated from both relations were inaccurate for small fish. Tables of corrections are given, based on the body-scale curves for small perch.

\n

The body-scale relations (determined from the same key scale) were similar for Lake Erie and Saginaw Bay perch but both differed sharply from the relation in the Green Bay populations.

\n

Good procedure requires high consistency in the field as to the point on the fish's body from which scale samples are taken and also a careful determination of the body-scale relation in each population studied.

","language":"English","publisher":"Taylor & Francis","doi":"10.1577/1548-8659(1956)86[169:SAGOSO]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"Joeris, L.S., 1957, Structure and growth of scales of yellow perch of Green Bay: Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, v. 86, no. 1, p. 169-194, https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1956)86[169:SAGOSO]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"26 p.","startPage":"169","endPage":"194","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":324,"text":"Great Lakes Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128909,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"86","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b14e4b07f02db6a479d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Joeris, Leonard S.","contributorId":104430,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Joeris","given":"Leonard","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":308320,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70039165,"text":"70039165 - 1956 - Geographic names of Antarctica","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-10T11:40:26","indexId":"70039165","displayToPublicDate":"2012-01-01T10:30:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":31,"text":"Gazetteer","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":1}},"seriesNumber":"14","title":"Geographic names of Antarctica","docAbstract":"The geographic nomenclature of Antarctica was long in need of an overall systematic treatment, objective in approach and based upon thorough examination of all the evidence. The results of such treatment over a period of about three years were presented in Geographical Names of Antarctica, Special Publication No. 86 of the Board on Geographical Names, in May 1947, two supplements to which were issued in 1949 and 1951. The continuing program since that publication has now covered most of the geographic naming in Antarctica. As research has filled in many of the previous gaps in knowledge, a number of names have been modified and minor amendments have been made in the policies. This revised publication brings together the greatly enlarged body of names officially standardized for use by the United States Government, together with new pertinent background information.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","usgsCitation":"U.S. Board on Geographic Names, Department of the Interior, Burrill, M.F., Bertrand, K.J., and Alberts, F.G., 1956, Geographic names of Antarctica (Revised Edition Official Standard Names): Gazetteer 14, v, 332 p.","productDescription":"v, 332 p.","numberOfPages":"342","costCenters":[{"id":491,"text":"Office of Geography","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":261321,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/fedgov/70039165/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":261320,"rank":800,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/fedgov/70039165/report.pdf"}],"otherGeospatial":"Antarctica","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -180,-90 ], [ -180,-60 ], [ 180,-60 ], [ 180,-90 ], [ -180,-90 ] ] ] } } ] }","edition":"Revised Edition Official Standard Names","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a177ce4b0c8380cd55500","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"U.S. Board on Geographic Names","contributorId":128291,"corporation":true,"usgs":false,"organization":"U.S. Board on Geographic Names","id":535219,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Department of the Interior","contributorId":128058,"corporation":true,"usgs":false,"organization":"Department of the Interior","id":535218,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Burrill, Meredith F.","contributorId":56094,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Burrill","given":"Meredith","email":"","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":465703,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Bertrand, Kenneth J.","contributorId":72252,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bertrand","given":"Kenneth","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":465705,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Alberts, Fred G.","contributorId":59288,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Alberts","given":"Fred","email":"","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":465704,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":5222761,"text":"5222761 - 1956 - Fifty-sixth Christmas Bird Count. 147. Southern Dorchester County, Md","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:14:56","indexId":"5222761","displayToPublicDate":"2010-06-16T12:18:24","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":935,"text":"Audubon Field Notes","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Fifty-sixth Christmas Bird Count. 147. Southern Dorchester County, Md","docAbstract":"Summary and Recommendations: We suggest that managers are approaching the limits of their ability to improve waterfowl harvest management, primarily because the information needed to make better decisions is being sacrificed by the current approach to setting regulations. We propose an actively adaptive management strategy in which regulatory decisions play a dominant role in reducing uncertainty about population dynamics. The proposed strategy recognizes 'value' in acquiring knowledge only to the extent that it contributes to the objective of optimizing harvests. To implement this strategy, managers will need: (1) a set of regulatory options, with possible constraints on their use; (2) quantifiable harvest management objectives; (3) a set of models that represent an array of meaningful hypotheses about the effects of regulations on populations; and (4) a measure of credibility (or likelihood) for each model, which can be updated regularly using information from waterfowl monitoring programs. Adaptive optimization is an iterative process in which the harvest-management policy converges over time to one that maximizes harvest under the most appropriate model. At each time step, an optimal regulatory decision is identified based on the state of the system and the model likelihoods. In the next time step, predicted population changes from the alternative models are compared with the actual changes provided by the monitoring program, The likelihoods are increased or decreased to the extent that predicted and actual population changes correspond. These updated likelihoods then are used in setting regulations in the next cycle and the process begins again. This iterative process produces the most informative regulations when uncertainty is prevalent and produces maximum sustainable yields as uncertainty is eliminated. We see no major obstacles to implementing this adaptive strategy, although there are a number of practical considerations. First and foremost, managers should assess the 'value' of learning. Only when there is a high degree of uncertainty about the effects of hunting regulations on population dynamics will the merit of our proposed strategy be evident. We suggest that this almost always will be true given our current understanding of the relationship between annual regulations, survival and population growth in waterfowl. Nonetheless, careful consideration should be given to formulating the set of alternative models. There is no value in distinguishing between models which differ in their mathematical formulation or biological realism, but which suggest similar harvest strategies. We suspect that 'mechanistic' models (i.e., those that attempt to capture the essence of biological processes) will make better candidates for model sets than so-called 'phenomenological' models. Assuming that all model sets include a good approximation of reality, learning rates will be dependent on the quality of monitoring programs. Fortunately, a variety of high-quality monitoring plans for many duck and goose populations of North America, when used with our adaptive approach, should provide new knowledge about population dynamics and response to hunting, and, thus, lead to improved management.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Audubon Field Notes","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","collaboration":"4437_Johnson.pdf","usgsCitation":"Johnson, F., Williams, B.K., Nichols, J., Hines, J., Kendall, W., Smith, G., and Caithamer, D.F., 1956, Fifty-sixth Christmas Bird Count. 147. Southern Dorchester County, Md: Audubon Field Notes, v. 10, no. 2, p. 565-583.","productDescription":"112-113","startPage":"565","endPage":"583","numberOfPages":"19","costCenters":[{"id":531,"text":"Patuxent Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":198453,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"10","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49fbe4b07f02db5f48ee","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Johnson, Fred A.","contributorId":93863,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Johnson","given":"Fred A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":337072,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Williams, B. Kenneth","contributorId":107798,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Williams","given":"B.","email":"","middleInitial":"Kenneth","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":337073,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Nichols, J.D. 0000-0002-7631-2890","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7631-2890","contributorId":14332,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nichols","given":"J.D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":337068,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Hines, J.E. 0000-0001-5478-7230","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5478-7230","contributorId":36885,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hines","given":"J.E.","affiliations":[{"id":531,"text":"Patuxent Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":337071,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Kendall, W. L. 0000-0003-0084-9891","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0084-9891","contributorId":32880,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kendall","given":"W. L.","affiliations":[{"id":531,"text":"Patuxent Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":337070,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Smith, G.W.","contributorId":6561,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"G.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":337067,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Caithamer, David F.","contributorId":24888,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Caithamer","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":337069,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7}]}} ,{"id":5224530,"text":"5224530 - 1956 - Fifty-sixth Christmas Bird Count. 147. Southern Dorchester County, Md","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:15:29","indexId":"5224530","displayToPublicDate":"2010-06-16T12:13:24","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":935,"text":"Audubon Field Notes","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Fifty-sixth Christmas Bird Count. 147. Southern Dorchester County, Md","docAbstract":"Summary and Recommendations: We suggest that managers are approaching the limits of their ability to improve waterfowl harvest management, primarily because the information needed to make better decisions is being sacrificed by the current approach to setting regulations. We propose an actively adaptive management strategy in which regulatory decisions play a dominant role in reducing uncertainty about population dynamics. The proposed strategy recognizes 'value' in acquiring knowledge only to the extent that it contributes to the objective of optimizing harvests. To implement this strategy, managers will need: (1) a set of regulatory options, with possible constraints on their use; (2) quantifiable harvest management objectives; (3) a set of models that represent an array of meaningful hypotheses about the effects of regulations on populations; and (4) a measure of credibility (or likelihood) for each model, which can be updated regularly using information from waterfowl monitoring programs. Adaptive optimization is an iterative process in which the harvest-management policy converges over time to one that maximizes harvest under the most appropriate model. At each time step, an optimal regulatory decision is identified based on the state of the system and the model likelihoods. In the next time step, predicted population changes from the alternative models are compared with the actual changes provided by the monitoring program, The likelihoods are increased or decreased to the extent that predicted and actual population changes correspond. These updated likelihoods then are used in setting regulations in the next cycle and the process begins again. This iterative process produces the most informative regulations when uncertainty is prevalent and produces maximum sustainable yields as uncertainty is eliminated. We see no major obstacles to implementing this adaptive strategy, although there are a number of practical considerations. First and foremost, managers should assess the 'value' of learning. Only when there is a high degree of uncertainty about the effects of hunting regulations on population dynamics will the merit of our proposed strategy be evident. We suggest that this almost always will be true given our current understanding of the relationship between annual regulations, survival and population growth in waterfowl. Nonetheless, careful consideration should be given to formulating the set of alternative models. There is no value in distinguishing between models which differ in their mathematical formulation or biological realism, but which suggest similar harvest strategies. We suspect that 'mechanistic' models (i.e., those that attempt to capture the essence of biological processes) will make better candidates for model sets than so-called 'phenomenological' models. Assuming that all model sets include a good approximation of reality, learning rates will be dependent on the quality of monitoring programs. Fortunately, a variety of high-quality monitoring plans for many duck and goose populations of North America, when used with our adaptive approach, should provide new knowledge about population dynamics and response to hunting, and, thus, lead to improved management.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Audubon Field Notes","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","usgsCitation":"Robbins, C., 1956, Fifty-sixth Christmas Bird Count. 147. Southern Dorchester County, Md: Audubon Field Notes, v. 10, no. 2, p. 112-113.","startPage":"112","endPage":"113","numberOfPages":"2","costCenters":[{"id":531,"text":"Patuxent Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":203003,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"10","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49fbe4b07f02db5f48f3","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Robbins, C.S.","contributorId":53907,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Robbins","given":"C.S.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":341936,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":71606,"text":"tei582 - 1956 - Duttonite, a new quadrivalent vanadium oxide from the Peanut mine, Montrose County, Colorado","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-07-15T06:28:59","indexId":"tei582","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T07:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"582","title":"Duttonite, a new quadrivalent vanadium oxide from the Peanut mine, Montrose County, Colorado","docAbstract":"

Duttonite, a new quadrivalent vanadium oxide from the Peanut mine, Montrose County, Colo., has the formula VO(OH)2. The mineral occurs as crusts and coatings of pale-brown transparent platy crystals, as one of the first oxidation products of montroseite ore. It is associated with melanovanadite and abundant crystals of hexagonal native selenium. Duttonite is biaxial positive, 2V is about 60°, dispersion is r < v, moderate; X = a, pale pinkish brown; Y = c, pale yellow-brown; Z = b, pale brown; α = 1.810 ± 0.003, β = 1.900 ± 0.003, γ > 2.01. The hardness is about 2.5; the calculated specific gravity is 3.24.

\n
\n

The chemical analysis shows, in percent: V2o3 2.6, V2O4 75.3, FeO 0.4, H2O 18.1, insoluble 4.2, total 100.6.

\n
\n

Duttonite is monoclinic, ao = 8.80 ± 0.02A, bo - 3.95 ± 0.01A, co - 5.96 ± 0.02A, β = 90°401 ± 51. The space group is I2/c, (C62h); the cell contents are 4[VO(OH)2]. The crystals are strongly pseudo-orthorhombic, and the structure departs only slightly from the space group Imcm.

\n
\n

Duttonite is named for Captain Clarence Edward Dutton (1841-1912).

\n
\n

A detailed study of the geology, geochemistry, and mineralogy of the vanadium-uranium ore at the Peanut mine, Montrose County, Colo., was begun early in 1954 by Carl H. Roach of the U. S. Geological Survey. A number of rare and new minerals were found in the ore and the study of these samples was undertaken by Mary E. Thompson. Duttonite is the first new vanadium mineral to be described from the Peanut mine. It is named for Captain Clarence Edward Dutton (1841-1912), who was one of the first geologists to work in the Colorado Plateau region and who was a member of the U. s. Geological Survey from 1879-91.

\n
\n

We are indebted to the following members of the Geological Surbey: K. E. Valentine for spectrographic analyses of duttonite, and M. E. Mrose and H. T. Evans, Jr., for measurement of the unit cell constants. This work is part of a program being conducted by the U. S. Geological Survey on behalf of the Division of Raw Materials of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei582","usgsCitation":"Thompson, M.E., Roach, C.H., and Meyrowitz, R., 1956, Duttonite, a new quadrivalent vanadium oxide from the Peanut mine, Montrose County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 582, 13 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/tei582.","productDescription":"13 p.","numberOfPages":"14","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":290027,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":290026,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0582/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","county":"Montrose County","otherGeospatial":"Peanut Mine","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -109.060256,38.152156 ], [ -109.060256,38.668569 ], [ -107.50002,38.668569 ], [ -107.50002,38.152156 ], [ -109.060256,38.152156 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a59e4b07f02db62fecf","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Thompson, Mary Eleanor","contributorId":36240,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thompson","given":"Mary","email":"","middleInitial":"Eleanor","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284464,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Roach, Carl Houston","contributorId":103295,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Roach","given":"Carl","email":"","middleInitial":"Houston","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284466,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Meyrowitz, Robert","contributorId":62680,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Meyrowitz","given":"Robert","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284465,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":15449,"text":"ofr5695 - 1956 - Geologic investigations of proposed Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake power sites, Alaska","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":15449,"text":"ofr5695 - 1956 - Geologic investigations of proposed Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake power sites, Alaska","indexId":"ofr5695","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"title":"Geologic investigations of proposed Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake power sites, Alaska"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":35492,"text":"b1031F - 1962 - Geologic investigations of proposed powersites at Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake, Alaska","indexId":"b1031F","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"chapter":"F","title":"Geologic investigations of proposed powersites at Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake, Alaska"},"id":1}],"supersededBy":{"id":35492,"text":"b1031F - 1962 - Geologic investigations of proposed powersites at Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake, Alaska","indexId":"b1031F","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Geologic investigations of proposed powersites at Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake, Alaska"},"lastModifiedDate":"2024-01-31T20:49:19.712777","indexId":"ofr5695","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"56-95","title":"Geologic investigations of proposed Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake power sites, Alaska","docAbstract":"

Geologic conditions at Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake are discussed in relation to possible plans for hydroeletric power development. The proposed sites are on the rugged mainland of Southeastern Alaska along Gastineau Channel and Taku Inlet near Juneau. Bedrock in the area consists of a coastal strip of northwestward-trending foliated metamorphic rocks with steep northeasterly dips. This belt of rocks is adjacent to the Coast Range batholith on the northeast, with a 2 to 3 mile wide zone of injection gneiss between the main batholith and the metamorphic rocks. Unconsolidated glacial and post-glacial deposits of Quaternary age mantle the bedrock over large parts of the area. The valleys of Sheep and Carlson Creeks have been modified by glaciers of Pleistocene age and Turner Lake occupies a rock basin formed by glacial scour.

There is an excellent site in greenstone bedrock at Sheep Creek for either a concrete or a rock fill dam. A conduit from the dam to a powerhouse along Gastineau Channel would be on bedrock for most of the distance. Slate bedrock suitable for a powerhouse site is exposed near the mouth of Sheep Creek. To the northwest along Gastineau Channel, bedrock is concealed by a mantle of glacial deposits of unknown thickness. The reservoir is in essentially impermeable bedrock; however, a main haulage adit of the Alaska-Juneau gold mine would probably have to be sealed off to prevent flooding of the mine workings or possible loss of water from the reservoir.

The dam, diversion tunnel, and powerhouse at Carlson Creek are all in bedrock consisting of fresh injection gneiss. This rock is well suited as the foundation of a concrete or rock fill dam, but foundation treatment would be required to seal off closely spaced open joints trending perpendicular to the proposed dam axis. The diversion tunnel would stand unsupported except possibly where it would intersect two zones of closely spaced joints. The reservoir would be in essentially impermeable bedrock.

Both the main dam and auxiliary structure at Turner Lake would be on an excellent foundation of granitic rock (granodiorite). Loose landslide debris would have to be removed at the dam site to expose fresh, sound bedrock. There is a powerhouse site in bedrock along Turner Creek at a stream elevation of 16 feet. Foundation conditions for a powerhouse at tidewater, near the mouth of Turner Creek were not studied. The conduit would be on sound granitic rock throughout its length, and the reservoir is entirely in relatively tight granitic bedrock.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr5695","usgsCitation":"Plafker, G., 1956, Geologic investigations of proposed Sheep Creek, Carlson Creek, and Turner Lake power sites, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 56-95, Report: 37 p.; 3 Plates: 21.80 x 26.79 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5695.","productDescription":"Report: 37 p.; 3 Plates: 21.80 x 26.79 inches or smaller","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":148778,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0095/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":425179,"rank":5,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0095/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":425178,"rank":4,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0095/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":425177,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0095/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":425176,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0095/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Carlson Creek, Sheep Creek, Turner Lake","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -134.55931309956082,\n 58.53883347149653\n ],\n [\n -134.55931309956082,\n 58.1955967884052\n ],\n [\n -133.88300839367312,\n 58.1955967884052\n ],\n [\n -133.88300839367312,\n 58.53883347149653\n ],\n [\n -134.55931309956082,\n 58.53883347149653\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b15e4b07f02db6a5008","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Plafker, George","contributorId":3920,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Plafker","given":"George","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171151,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":71656,"text":"tei638 - 1956 - Host rocks and their alterations as related to uranium-bearing veins in the United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-07-15T08:02:17","indexId":"tei638","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"638","title":"Host rocks and their alterations as related to uranium-bearing veins in the United States","docAbstract":"

This paper, dealing with the different kinds of host rocks and their alterations associated with uranium-bearing veins in the United States, is a chapter of a comprehensive report entitled , \"Geology of uranium-bearing vein deposits in the United States,\" in preparation by George W. Walker, Frank W. Osterwald, and others. The comprehensive report will include detailed information on tectonic and structural setting, kinds of host rocks, wall-rock alteration, mineralogy, physical characteristics, processes of deposition, and concepts of origin of uraniferous veins; but, because it will not be completed until sometime in the future, some chapters of the report are being transmitted as they are finished. Part of an introductory chapter to the comprehensive report entitled, \"Classification and distribution of uranium-bearing veins in the United States\" (Walker and Osterwald, 1956) has already been transmitted; several of the terms used herein are defined in the introductory chapter.

\n
\n

Data included in this chapter demonstrate that uranium-bearing veins are: 1) in rocks of nearly all textural, chemical, and mineralogic types; 2) most abundant in holocrystalline, commonly equigranular, igeneous and metamorphic rocks characterized by a moderate to high silica content and and by similar physical properties. Although some of the physiochemical properties of the host rocks are discussed in terms of favorability or nonfavoribility for uranium deposition, the principal purpose of this chapter is to establish the petroloic environment in which uranium-bearing veins have been found. Because favorability or nonfavorability of host rocks is related complexly to the chemistry of ore solutions and to methods or uranium transport and deposition, several hypothetical processes of transport and deposition have been referred to briefly; these and other hypotheses will be outlines and discussed in greater detail in a subsequent chapter.

\n
\n

The compilation of data leading to this report and its preparation by a member of the Uranium Research and Resource Section, U.S. Geological Survey, was done on behalf of the Division of Raw Materials, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. The report is based on both published and unpublished information collected principally by personnel of the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission or its predecessor organization, the Manhattan Engineer District, and to a lesser extent by staff members of other Federal or State agencies and by geologists in private industry. Information concerning foreign uranium-bearing vein deposits has been extracted almost exclusively from published reports; references to these and other data are included at appropriate places.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei638","collaboration":"The report concerns works done on behalf of the Division of Raw Materials of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission","usgsCitation":"Walker, G.W., 1956, Host rocks and their alterations as related to uranium-bearing veins in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 638, 59 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/tei638.","productDescription":"59 p.","numberOfPages":"61","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":290077,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":290076,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0638/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -124.8,24.5 ], [ -124.8,49.383333 ], [ -66.95,49.383333 ], [ -66.95,24.5 ], [ -124.8,24.5 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ae0e4b07f02db6880de","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Walker, George W.","contributorId":101308,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Walker","given":"George","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284552,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":13942,"text":"ofr5648 - 1956 - The multi-slope model: A constructed stereoscopic model showing angles of slope from 2 to 90 degrees at different locations and sloping in different directions in the model","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-06-03T14:23:11.639069","indexId":"ofr5648","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"56-48","title":"The multi-slope model: A constructed stereoscopic model showing angles of slope from 2 to 90 degrees at different locations and sloping in different directions in the model","docAbstract":"

No abstract available.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr5648","usgsCitation":"Hackman, R., 1956, The multi-slope model: A constructed stereoscopic model showing angles of slope from 2 to 90 degrees at different locations and sloping in different directions in the model: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 56-48, 10 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5648.","productDescription":"10 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":147080,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0048/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":489370,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0048/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a80e4b07f02db6499e7","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hackman, Robert J.","contributorId":30999,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hackman","given":"Robert J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":168678,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2999,"text":"wsp1365 - 1956 - Saline-water resources of Texas","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-08-22T10:43:42","indexId":"wsp1365","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1365","title":"Saline-water resources of Texas","docAbstract":"

Large quantities of saline water are available in the world, both on the surface and underground; however, these waters have not been studied extensively as sources of potable water.

\n

Saline water is defined herein as water containing more than 1,000 parts per million of dissolved solids, or, with certain mineralized irrigation waters whose exact dissolved solids content is not known, water containing more than 60 percent sodium.

\n

Saline ground water occurs as connate water or other saline water that entered an aquifer in the geologic past and has not been flushed from the aquifer; as the result of solution of soluble materials in aquifers by percolating ground water; as a result of salt-water encroachment into aquifers which are in hydrologic connection with saline waters; or as the result of concentration by evaporation, especially in the vicinity of playa lakes.

\n

Surface water may become saline as a result of seepage of highly mineralized ground water; solution of salts from rocks over which the streams flow; intrusion of sea water in tidal reaches of a stream; and discharge of saline wastes from industrial operations.

\n

Most of the aquifers in Texas contain saline water in some parts, and a few are capable of producing large quantities of saline water. Of the early Paleozoic formations, the Hickory sandstone member of the Riley formation of Cambrian age and the Ellenburger group of Ordovician age are potential sources of small to moderate supplies of saline water in parts of central and west-central Texas.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1365","usgsCitation":"Winslow, A.G., and Kister, L.R., 1956, Saline-water resources of Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1365, Report: v, 105 p.; 9 Plates, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1365.","productDescription":"Report: v, 105 p.; 9 Plates","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":583,"text":"Texas Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":29780,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29781,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29782,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29783,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29784,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29785,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29786,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-7.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29787,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-8.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29788,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/plate-9.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29789,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":139400,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1365/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":109938,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_24346.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"24346"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a0be4b07f02db5fc05f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Winslow, Allen George","contributorId":44522,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Winslow","given":"Allen","email":"","middleInitial":"George","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146123,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Kister, Lester Ray","contributorId":107670,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kister","given":"Lester","email":"","middleInitial":"Ray","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146124,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":34013,"text":"b1030E - 1956 - Study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels as a method of prospecting","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":70048589,"text":"tem629 - 1955 - A study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels and its possible application as a prospecting method","indexId":"tem629","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"title":"A study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels and its possible application as a prospecting method"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":34013,"text":"b1030E - 1956 - Study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels as a method of prospecting","indexId":"b1030E","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"chapter":"E","title":"Study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels as a method of prospecting"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2013-10-24T16:03:41","indexId":"b1030E","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1030","chapter":"E","title":"Study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels as a method of prospecting","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/b1030E","usgsCitation":"Chew, R., 1956, Study of radioactivity in modern stream gravels as a method of prospecting: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1030, p.149-169, ill. (1 fold in pocket) ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/b1030E.","productDescription":"p.149-169, ill. (1 fold in pocket) ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":164409,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1030e/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":247471,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1030e/plate-8.pdf","size":"927","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":61935,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1030e/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db699cb6","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Chew, Randall T.","contributorId":75203,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Chew","given":"Randall T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":212321,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1181,"text":"wsp1330C - 1956 - Water requirements of the aluminum industry","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":1181,"text":"wsp1330C - 1956 - Water requirements of the aluminum industry","indexId":"wsp1330C","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"chapter":"C","title":"Water requirements of the aluminum industry"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70188911,"text":"wsp1330 - 1955 - Water requirements of selected industries","indexId":"wsp1330","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"title":"Water requirements of selected industries"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70188911,"text":"wsp1330 - 1955 - Water requirements of selected industries","indexId":"wsp1330","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"title":"Water requirements of selected industries"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-27T13:58:52","indexId":"wsp1330C","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1330","chapter":"C","title":"Water requirements of the aluminum industry","docAbstract":"

Aluminum is unique among metals in the way it is obtained from its ore. The first step is to produce alumina, a white powder that bears no resemblance to the bauxite from which it is derived or to the metallic aluminum to which it is reduced by electrolytic action in a second step. Each step requires a complete plant facility, and the plants may be adjacent or separated by as much as the width of the North American continent. Field investigations sf every alumina plant and reduction works in the United States were undertaken to determine the industry's water use. Detailed studies were made of process and plant layout so that a water balance could be made for each plant to determine not only the gross water intake but also an approximation of the consumptive use of water.

Water requirements of alumina plants range from 0.28 to 1.10 gallons per pound of alumina; the average for the industry is 0.66 gallon. Water requirements of reduction works vary considerably more, ranging from 1.24 to 36.33 gallons per pound of aluminum, and average 14.62 gallons.

All alumina plants in the United States derive alumina from bauxite by the Bayer process or by the Combination process, a modification of the Bayer process. Although the chemical process for obtaining alumina from bauxite is essentially the same at all plants, different procedures are employed to cool the sodium aluminate solution before it enters the precipitating tanks and to concentrate it by evaporation of some of the water in the solution. Where this evaporation takes place in a cooling tower, water in the solution is lost to the atmosphere as water vapor and so is used consumptively. In other plants, the quantity of solution in the system is controlled by evaporation in a multiple-effect evaporator where practically all vapor distilled out of the solution is condensed to water that may be reused. The latter method is used in all recently constructed alumina plants, and some older plants are replacing cooling towers with multiple-effect evaporators.

All reduction works in the United States use the Hall process, but the variation in water requirements is even greater than the variation at alumina plants, and, further, the total daily water requirement for all reduction works is more than 9 times the total daily requirement of all alumina plants. Many reduction works use gas scrubbers, but some do not. As gas scrubbing is one of the principal water uses in reduction works, the manner in which wash water is used, cooled, and reused accounts in large measure for the variation in water requirements.

Although the supply of water for all plants but one was reported by the management to be ample for all plant needs, the economic factor of the cost of water differs considerably among plants. It is this factor that accounts in large measure for the widely divergent slant practices. Plant capacity alone has so little effect on plant water requirements that other conditions such as plant operation based on the cost of water, plant location, and the need for conservation of water mask any economy inherent in plant size.

","largerWorkTitle":"Water requirements of selected industries","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/wsp1330C","usgsCitation":"Conklin, H.L., 1956, Water requirements of the aluminum industry: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1330, v, 137 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1330C.","productDescription":"v, 137 p.","startPage":"103","endPage":"139","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":26025,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1330c/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"2.27 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":138026,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1330c/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a07e4b07f02db5f9722","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Conklin, Howard L.","contributorId":81883,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Conklin","given":"Howard","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143312,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1182,"text":"wsp1330B - 1956 - Water requirements of the carbon-black industry","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":1182,"text":"wsp1330B - 1956 - Water requirements of the carbon-black industry","indexId":"wsp1330B","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"chapter":"B","title":"Water requirements of the carbon-black industry"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70188911,"text":"wsp1330 - 1955 - Water requirements of selected industries","indexId":"wsp1330","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"title":"Water requirements of selected industries"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70188911,"text":"wsp1330 - 1955 - Water requirements of selected industries","indexId":"wsp1330","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"title":"Water requirements of selected industries"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-27T13:59:48","indexId":"wsp1330B","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1330","chapter":"B","title":"Water requirements of the carbon-black industry","docAbstract":"

Carbon blacks include an important group of industrial carbons used chiefly as a reinforcing agent in rubber tires. In 1953 more than 1,610 million pounds of carbon black was produced, of which approximately 1,134 million pounds was consumed by the rubber industry. The carbon-black industry uses small quantities of water as compared to some industries; however, the water requirements of the industry are important because of the dependence of the rubber-tire industry on carbon black.

Two methods are used in the manufacture of carbon black - contact and furnace. The only process use of water in the contact method is that used in pelleting. Water is used also in the plant washhouse and for cleaning, and sometimes the company camp may be supplied by the plant. A survey made during the last quarter of 1953 showed that the average values of unit water use at contact plants for process use, all plant uses, and all uses including company camps are 0.08, 0.14, and 0.98 gallon of water per pound of carbon black respectively.

In addition to use in wet pelleting, large quantities of water are required in continuous and cyclic furnace methods to reduce the temperature of the gases of decomposition in order to separate and collect the entrained carbon black. The 22 furnace plants in operation in 1953 used a total of 12.4 million gallons per day for process use. Four furnace plants generate electric power for plant use; condenser-cooling water for one such plant may nearly equal the requirements of the entire industry for process use. The average values of unit water use at furnace plants for process use, all plant uses and all uses including company camps but excluding power generation are 3.26, 3.34, and 3.45 gallons of water per pound of carbon black respectively.

Carbon-black plants in remote, sparsely settled areas often must maintain company camps for employees. Twenty-one of twenty-seven contact plants surveyed in 1953 had company camps. These camps used large quantities of water: 0.84 gallon per pound of carbon black as compared to 0.14 gallon per pound used in the plants.

Furnace plants can generally be located near a labor supply and, therefore, do not require company camps. Ten of the twenty-two furnace plants surveyed in 1953 had company camps.

Because water used for pelleting and gas quenching is evaporated, leaving the dissolved minerals in the product as objectionable impurities, particular attention was paid to the quality of water available for use at the plants visited during the 1953 survey. Reports of chemical analyses of water samples were obtained at 23 plants. A study of these reports does not develop a pattern of the limits of tolerance of dissolved solids in water used in process or of the need for water treatment based on geographical location of the plant. However these analyses show that water used for quenching contains less dissolved solids than water used by the industry for any other purpose.

Based on trends in the industry it is expected that the quantity of water used by the carbon-black industry will increase more rapidly than will the quantity of carbon black produced because of the increasing percentage produced in furnace plants, and that selection of sites for modern furnace plants will be influenced more by quantity and quality of the available water supply than was the case in selecting sites for contact plants for which low-cost natural gas was the primary consideration.

","largerWorkTitle":"Water requirements of selected industries","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/wsp1330B","usgsCitation":"Conklin, H.L., 1956, Water requirements of the carbon-black industry: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1330, v, 29 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1330B.","productDescription":"v, 29 p.","startPage":"73","endPage":"101","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138027,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1330b/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26026,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1330b/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"657.85 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a07e4b07f02db5f9762","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Conklin, Howard L.","contributorId":81883,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Conklin","given":"Howard","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143313,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":3501,"text":"cir373 - 1956 - Water resources of the Mobile area, Alabama, with a section on salinity of the Mobile River","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-07-07T18:09:23.935231","indexId":"cir373","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"373","title":"Water resources of the Mobile area, Alabama, with a section on salinity of the Mobile River","docAbstract":"Water is an abundant resource of the Mobile area. The Mobile River has an estimated average flow of 60, 000 cubic feet per second (cfs), or about 39,000 million gallons per day (mgd). It is the largest single source of water. Water is available in substantial quantities from the many local streams and extensive water-bearing formations almost anywhere in the area. \r\n\r\nSurface water is low in dissolved mineral matter and is extremely soft. Salt water moving up the Mobile River from Mobile Bay during periods of low river flow, however, limits the use of that stream as a source of supply. \r\n\r\nThe principal water-bearing formations are the alluvium and sediments of Miocene age. The Miocene strata dip toward the southwest, forming an artesian basin in the downtown area of Mobile. Small groundwater supplies can be developed practically everywhere, and supplies for industrial or other large-scale uses are available north of Mobile. \r\n\r\nThe average use of water from all sources in the area during 1954 was about 356 mgd, of which about 20 mgd was used for domestic supplies and 336 mgd was used by industry. An estimated 42 mgd of ground water is used in the Mobile area. The discharge from wells used by industry ranges from 10 to 1,500 gallons per minute (gpm}, and the specific capacity of the large-capacity wells ranges from less than 6 to about 6 3 gpm per foot of drawdown. \r\n\r\nConcentrated pumping in the downtown area of Mobile between 1941 and 1945 resulted in encroachment of salt water from the Mobile River into the alluvium. Because of a decrease in pumping in that vicinity, the sodium chloride content of the water has decreased substantially since 1945. \r\n\r\nThe quality of ground water is variable. Hardness of waters sampled ranged from 1 to 2, 190 parts per million (ppm}, the dissolved solids from 27 to 13, 000 ppm, and the chloride from 2.2 to 6,760 ppm. The water of best quality occurs between McIntosh and Prichard, and the water of poorest quality occurs in the downtown area of Mobile. \r\n\r\nThe water-supply systems presently developed in the metropolitan area could furnish a moderate increase without taxing their facilities; with some increase in plant and pumping facilities, they could support a substantial increase. Industries outside the metropolitan area must develop their own supplies from local streams or wells.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir373","usgsCitation":"Robinson, W., Powell, W.J., Brown, E., and Corps of Engineers, U.A., 1956, Water resources of the Mobile area, Alabama, with a section on salinity of the Mobile River: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 373, Report: iv, 45 p.; 2 Plates: 13.57 × 16.94 inches and 13.68 × 16.88 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/cir373.","productDescription":"Report: iv, 45 p.; 2 Plates: 13.57 × 16.94 inches and 13.68 × 16.88 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":30511,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1956/0373/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30513,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1956/0373/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30512,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1956/0373/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":403192,"rank":5,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_23842.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":124725,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1956/0373/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alabama","city":"Mobile","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -88.4124755859375,\n 30.680439786468128\n ],\n [\n -87.8961181640625,\n 30.680439786468128\n ],\n [\n -87.8961181640625,\n 31.348945815579977\n ],\n [\n -88.4124755859375,\n 31.348945815579977\n ],\n [\n -88.4124755859375,\n 30.680439786468128\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f4e4b07f02db5f04b6","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Robinson, W.H.","contributorId":91478,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Robinson","given":"W.H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147047,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Powell, William J.","contributorId":62202,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Powell","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147046,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Brown, Eugene","contributorId":15187,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brown","given":"Eugene","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147044,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army","contributorId":29406,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Corps of Engineers","given":"U.S.","email":"","middleInitial":"Army","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147045,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":39149,"text":"pp288 - 1956 - Surficial geology and geomorphology of Potter County, Pennsylvania","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-03-31T20:22:47.985301","indexId":"pp288","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"288","title":"Surficial geology and geomorphology of Potter County, Pennsylvania","docAbstract":"

Potter County is located in the Appalachian Plateaus of north-central Pennsylvania and contains the headwaters of the Genesee River, the Allegheny River, and the Susquehanna River. Drift of Wisconsin age covers the northeastern part of the county. This study includes a detailed survev of the surficial deposits of the Genesee quadrangle in north-central Potter County and a reconnaissance of the remainder of the county; a soil survey and a botanical survey were carried on concurrently. The region is a deeply dissected plateau having extensive areas of steeply sloping land separated by narrow ridges and valleys; there is very little level land. Near the junction of the three watersheds the uplands rise to altitudes of more than 2,500 feet. The maximum relief in the Susquehanna drainage is more than 1,500 feet; in the Genesee and Allegheny drainage it. is about 800 feet. Valley walls are steep (15° to 30°), and the uplands have gentle slopes (0.5° to 10°). The drainage pattern is trellised. The climate is continental. Temperatures range from about -30° F. to more than 100° F. The average annual precipitation ranges approximately from 34 to 42 inches. Floods may occur at any season of the year. The large volumes of water from rain or melting snow carried by small streams come from springs. There is little precise data on frost in the ground, but it is probable that the ground seldom freezes in forested areas. The soils of Potter County have relatively immature profiles with poorly developed horizons that commonly have many characteristics inherited from their parent materials. At the great soil group level, the zonal soils are divided into Podzol soils and Brown Podzolic soils. Many soils have a high silt content in the upper part of the profile, apparently derived (at least partly) from a mantle of eolian silt. Mos~ of Potter County is covered by second-growth forests consisting of 40- to 60-year-old hardwood stands. The present forests growing on slopes and summits are composed approximately of 25 species of trees. The northern hardwood region includes most of the county, with an oak-forest region near the borders, principally along its southern margin. Potter County is underlain by sandstone, siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and minor amounts of coal and calcareous rock that range in age from Late Devonian to Pennsylvanian. These rocks form broad open folds that strike northeast. South of the border of the Wisconsin drift, and possibly at two localities inside the drift border, are scattered remnants of ancient soils (here called paleosol), that were formed in preWisconsin time-probably during the Sangamon interglacial stage. This paleosol ranges in texture from clay loam to silt loam, ranges in color from yellowish red to red, includes a few percent to more than 25 percent of rock fragments, and apparently contains a small percentage of gibbsite and varying amounts of kaolinite. Known thicknesses range from 1 to 33 feet. Paleosol was developed on diverse kinds of parent material, such as till, stratified drift, colluvium, and residuum, at altitudes ranging from a few hundred to 2,400 feet. The climatic conditions under which the paleosol formed are uncertain; however, these ancient soils may record an episode of subtropical climatic conditions during which lateritic soils were formed. Perhaps these soils are analogous to the Red-Yellow Podzolic soils of southeastern United States. Except for one possible remnant, no pre-Wisconsin drift has been recognized in Potter County. The Wisconsin glacial deposits of Potter County belong to either the Iowan or Tazewell substages and are dominantly till with minor amounts of glaciofluvial deposits. Erratics of igneous or metamorphic rock comprise less than 0.1 percent of the total number of rock fragments. The till is slightly weathered to depths ranging from 3 to about 12 feet. The drift border is indefinite and has been drawn at the southern limit of erratics or well-rounded or striated pebbles and is only locally marked by a terminal moraine or by a distinct change in the surficial deposits. The drift border is relatively straight and crosses the Genesee quadrangle in a northwesterly direction with little regard for the major topographic features, thus suggesting that the Wisconsin ice sheet had a relatively straight and steep front. Over most of the unglaciated part of Potter County, the bedrock is concealed beneath rubble that probably was formed during the Iowan or Tazewell substage, almost contemporaneously with the adjacent drift. In general, the rubble is thickest and most extensive within about 10 miles of the drift border, becoming thinner and less continuous farther away. The apparent parallelism between a belt of thick periglacial deposits and the drift border suggests that the deposits result from climatic factors in operation while the Wisconsin ice sheet was nearby. Ancient soil structures or patterned ground occur at, or near, the surface of both the periglacial deposits and the adjacent drift. These ancient soil structures are so similar to modern forms in arctic or alpine environments that they are considered to be the result of vigorous frost action. Many of the structures are believed to be a result of down-slope movement of debris by solifluction, facilitated by a frozen subsoil as much as 10 feet deep. Perennially frozen ground may have been present, but this is not a prerequisite. The periglacial deposits underlie long smooth slopes that extend from ridge crest to valley bottom. Flood plains are absent near the headwaters of many streams, the valley walls forming a V-shaped profile. While frost action was in progress, forests probably were restricted to flood plains, lower slopes, and scattered upland areas. Large parts of the upland were bare or partly covered by tundra vegetation; elsewhere, there were scattered trees but no dense forest. 1 2 SURFICIAL GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF POTTER COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA Recent alluvium and alluvial fans include sand and sandy loams, 1 to 3 feet thick, that overlie gravel. The alluvium contains organic matter and lenses of finer materials. Thickness ranges from a few to more than 100 feet. Along the principal streams the alluvium probably overlies Pleistocene deposits. Most of the alluvial fans are composed of unstratified rubbly, pebbly, cobbly. or bouldery sandy loams to silty clay loams with local lenses of stratified sand and gravel. The alluvial fans mapped in the Genesee quadrangle probably include both Wisconsin stage and Recent deposits. The summits of the A.ppalachian Plateaus in north-central Pennsylvania have long been recognized as the remnants or traces of one or more peneplains. To test this hypothesis, a restored contour map was prepared to show the configuration of a supposed peneplain on the assumption that the plateau tops are remnants of such an old erosion surface. The restored contours delineate a surface that corresponds roughly to rock structure. In general, the uplands slope parallel to the dip of the bedrock. The major streams, such as the West Branch Susquehanna River, cross the ridges and valleys of the restored surface in such a way that it is difficult to suppose that the restored surface was ever graded to these streams. On the contrary, it is probable that the restored surface never existed and that the plateau tops are structurally controlled surfaces held up by sandstone and conglomerate beds in the Pottsville and Pocono formations. The plateau tops may have been lowered by erosion as much as 200 feet during the Pleistocene-in other words, after the major streams were incised. If this portion of the Appalachian Plateaus was ever reduced to a peneplain, such a hypothetical surface must have lain many hundreds of feet above the uplands of the present day. The only alternative that might involve peneplanation is the improbable hypothesis that the plateau tops are remnants of a slightly deformed peneplain and that the peneplain was folded along the axes of the Appalachian orogeny. This remote possibility is not supported by any known evidence. The geomorphic analysis yields no new data on the origin of the cross-axial drainage. Regardless of whether the plateaus are peneplain remnants or are structurally controlled surfaces, the beginning of the major southeastward-flowing streams long antedates the existing landscape. The geomorphic history of Potter County begins with an assumed long interval of erosion during the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic eras, for which no record remains in this area. The southeast master drainage was established by the latter part of the Tertiary period (perhaps at a much earlier date), probably as the result of the northwestward migration of the Atlanticinterior divide. In late Pliocene(?) time, areas adjacent to parts of the West Branch Susquehanna River-and probably elsewhere-had a moderate relief ranging from 300 to 700 feet. Some segments of the West Branch meandered across a broad valley that lay about 900 feet above the present streams. The landscape probably was covered by deep residual soils, perhaps by saprolite. The early Pleistocene history of Potter County is essentially unknown. No deposits of the Kansan stage are known except for a possible trace of pre-Illinoian drift on the uplands in central Potter County (Ayers Hill quadrangle). Some deposits in central and eastern Pennsylvania may be of Kansan age. It is probable that the assumed Aftonian regolith was removed by mass movements and other processes during the Kansan stage, thus resulting in a lowering of the plateau tops by as much as 10 feet. By the close of the Yarmouth(?) interglacial stage the major streams were incised to essentially their present depths. The climates of the Yarmouth interglacial stage probably produced deep residual soils over the landscape, parts of which may still be preserved in the paleosol remnants of the present day. No Illinoian drift is known in Potter County, but drift assigned to this stage occurs in areas to the northwest and to the southeast. Some valleys, such as Kettle Creek valley, were filled with sand and gravel alluvium to depths of as much as 150 feet above their present flood plains. It is assumed that the Yarmouth residual soils were removed by mass movements and other processes induced by a periglacial climate, thus lowering the plateau tops by as much as 10 feet. During the Sangamon interglacial stage, deep (10-to-20 foot) residual soils or paleosol were developed in Potter County and probably throughout much of Pennsylvania, perhaps as a result of lateritic weathering in a subtropical climate. It is possible that the paleosol was largely removed by mass movements and by running water during late Sangamon time. During either the Iowan or Tazewell substages of the Wisconsin (perhaps the Iowan), the ice sheet advanced into the northeastern part of Potter County. The drift is similar to the Olean drift (local usage). The paleosol was almost completely removed by mass movements and other processes induced· by a periglacial climate, prior to drift deposition. This removal probably resulted in a lowering of the plateau tops by as much as 10 feet since Sangamon time. Nearly contemporaneously with drift deposition, the periglacial deposits were formed by frost heaving, solifluction, and fluvial transport in areas outside the drift border. Soil structures or patterned ground were developed on both the drift and the periglacial deposits. It is probable that the forests in the periglacial area were greatly restricted and that large areas on the uplands were essentially treeless. Little is known about the history of Potter County in postOlean time. Presumably, forests completely covered the county by the onset of the next substage, during which the Binghamton drift of MacClintock and Apfel was deposited. This drift also is found in southern New York State. The formation of the alluvium and alluvial fans probably began in the Tazewell substage and continued during the Recent epoch. Since these deposits were formed there has been very little dissection. There is little, if any, difference between soils developed on periglacial deposits and soils developed on drift. The roots of fallen trees have disturbed the soil horizons, and it is unlikely that the existing soil profiles are more than 500 years old. The forested landscape of Potter County has a distinctive microrelief ranging from a few inches to a few feet of mounds and pits produced by the roots of fallen trees. Most mounds and pits range from 10 to 20 feet in length and from 6 to 15 feet in width. On level land, many mounds are oriented with their long axes trending northward, and in some areas the orientation is random. On slopes, the mounds are oriented with their long axes at right angles to the maximum slope as a result of trees falling downslope. The toppling of trees increases the permeability of surficial deposits and mixes and destroys the soil horizons. The microrelief is a factor in forest development. The toppling of trees on slopes is a significant agent of slope erosion. The process loosens, breaks up, or overturns the upper 2 to 3 feet of the forest soil, and it tends to make the surficial layer more stony and to produce features resembling soil structures.

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