The Mesaverde group of Late Cretaceous age at Sunnyside, Utah consists in ascending order; the Blackhawk formation, Castlegate sandstone and the Price River formation. The Mancos shale inter-tongues with the Blackhawk formation.
The Mancos shale formed in an offshore marine environment, the Blackhawk formation formed in a mixed marine and continental environment and the Castlegate and Price River formations at Sunnyside, Utah formed in a continental environment.
Thin even bedding characterizes the Mancos shale except where it extends as a thin tongue into the Blackhawk formation. Tongues of the Mancos shale in the Blackhawk formation have in places disrupted bedding and locally contain impressions of twigs and branches. Disrupted bedding with mottling, irregular and uneven bedding, and very thick bedding with cross stratification resembling lower foreshore laminae, are primary structures common in modern marine sediments and can also be found in the marine tongues of the Blackhawk formation. Massive, wedge-shaped, cut-and-fill structures characteristic of fluviatile deposits are found in the Castlegate-Price River formations.
Particle size distribution in the marine tongues of the Blackhawk formation shows an increasing coarseness as shoreline deposits are approached. Coal particles are generally absent in the marine sandstones of the Blackhawk formation but are commonly found in abundance in the continental sandstones in the Blackhawk.
The economic coal beds within the Blackhawk formation at Sunnyside have been reported as consisting of a \"Lower\" Sunnyside seam and an \"Upper\" Sunnyside seam. Stratigraphic sections and drill logs indicate that these seams may be splits of one major coal bed and that the term \"Upper\" Sunnyside seam refers to more than one major split.
The relationship of the splits in the Sunnyside coal seams and the lithologic characteristics of the coal indicate that the coal swamp existed on a low-lying coastal plain close to sea level where swamp accumulations were interrupted occasionally by fluviatile deposition.
Subsidence due to compaction of underlying sediments, aggradation as the shoreline regressed as well as slow tectonic subsidence or gradual eustatic rise in sea level are factors which may account for the thickness of the Sunnyside coal beds.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr6018","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Mines","usgsCitation":"Brodsky, H., 1960, The Mesaverde group at Sunnyside, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 60-18, Report: 70 p.; 4 Plates: 68.42 x 18.23 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr6018.","productDescription":"Report: 70 p.; 4 Plates: 68.42 x 18.23 inches or smaller","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":489700,"rank":6,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0018/plate-2-3.pdf","text":"Plate 2-3","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":489699,"rank":5,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0018/plate-2-2.pdf","text":"Plate 2-2","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":489698,"rank":4,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0018/plate-2-1.pdf","text":"Plate 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Harold","contributorId":18000,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brodsky","given":"Harold","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":166700,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":6198,"text":"pp351 - 1960 - Mode of flow of Saskatchewan Glacier, Alberta, Canada","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:06:02","indexId":"pp351","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"351","title":"Mode of flow of Saskatchewan Glacier, Alberta, Canada","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U. S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/pp351","usgsCitation":"Meier, M.F., 1960, Mode of flow of Saskatchewan Glacier, Alberta, Canada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 351, 70 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp351.","productDescription":"70 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":117305,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":33359,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":33360,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":33361,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":33362,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":33363,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":33364,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0351/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db699a6a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Meier, Mark Frederick","contributorId":30982,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Meier","given":"Mark","email":"","middleInitial":"Frederick","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":152282,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":15046,"text":"ofr6099 - 1960 - Origin and chemical composition of evaporite deposits","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:08","indexId":"ofr6099","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"60-99","title":"Origin and chemical composition of evaporite deposits","docAbstract":"A comparative study of marine evaporite deposits forming at the present time along the pacific coast of central Mexico and evaporite formations of Permian age in West Texas Basin was made in order to determine if the modern sediments provide a basis for understanding environmental conditions that existed during deposition of the older deposits. The field work was supplemented by investigations of artificial evaporite minerals precipitated in the laboratory and by study of the chemical composition of halite rock of different geologic ages.\r\n\r\nThe environment of deposition of contemporaneous marine salt deposits in Mexico is acidic, is strongly reducing a few centimeters below the surface, and teems with microscopic life. Deposition of salt, unlike that of many other sediments, is not wholly a constructional phenomenon. Permanent deposits result only if a favorable balance exists between deposition in the dry season and dissolution in the wet season.\r\n\r\nEvaporite formations chosen for special study in the West Texas Basin are, in ascending order, the Castile, Salado, and Rustler formations, which have a combined thickness of 1200 meters. The Castile formation is largely composed of gypsum rock, the Salado, halite rock, and the Rustler, quartz and carbonate sandstone. The lower part of the Castile formation is bituminous and contains limestone laminae. The Castile and Rustler formations thicken to the south at the expense of salt of the intervening Salado formation.\r\n\r\nThe clastic rocks of the Rustler formation are interpreted as the deposits of a series of barrier islands north of which halite rock of the Salado was deposited. The salt is believed to have formed in shallow water of uniform density that was mixed by the wind. Where water depth exceeded the depth of the wind mixing, density stratification developed, and gypsum was deposited. Dense water of high salinity below the density discontinuity was overlain by less dense, more normally saline water which was derived from the sea to the south. Mixing of the two water layers at their interface diluted the lower layer so as to prevent halite formation, but at the same time the depressed solubility of calcium sulfate in the mixture at the interface caused precipitation of gypsum.\r\n\r\nThe upper water layer is believed to have supported a flourishing microscopic biota whose remains descended into semisterile brine below where reducing conditions prevailed. This environment generated the bituminous gypsum rock. At times, microcrystalline calcium carbonate of probable biochemical origin formed in the upper layer and settled below to form limestone laminae such as those of the lower part of the Castile formation.\r\n\r\nChemical analyses of Permian and present-day salt were compared with analyses of marine salt as old as Cambrian age to determine if evaporite deposits can contribute information on the geologic history of sea water. The results contain uncertainties that cannot be fully resolved, but they suggest that the ratio between ions in sea water has been approximately constant since Precambrian time. In addition, the abrupt initial appearance of rock salt deposits in Cambrian time suggests that the Precambrian ocean may have been rather dilute, but this apparent relationship also could have been caused by other factors.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr6099","usgsCitation":"Moore, G.W., 1960, Origin and chemical composition of evaporite deposits: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 60-99, 174 p. ill., mpa ;28 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr6099.","productDescription":"174 p. ill., mpa ;28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":148399,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0099/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":43958,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0099/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":43959,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0099/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":43960,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1960/0099/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66cea1","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Moore, George William","contributorId":89123,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"George","email":"","middleInitial":"William","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":170474,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":57720,"text":"ofr60166 - 1960 - Ground water in Oklahoma","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-11-05T10:34:32","indexId":"ofr60166","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"60-166","title":"Ground water in Oklahoma","docAbstract":"One of the first requisites for the intelligent planning of utilization and control of water and for the administration of laws relating to its use is data on the quantity, quality, and mode of occurrence of the available supplies. The collection, evaluation and interpretation, and publication of such data are among the primary functions of the U. S. Geological Survey, Since 1895 the Congress has made appropriations to the Survey for investigation of the water resources of the Nation. In 1929 the Congress adopted the policy of dollar-for-dollar cooperation with the States and local governmental agencies in water resources investigations of the U. S. Geological Survey, In 1937 a program of ground-water investigations was started in cooperation with the Oklahoma Geological Survey, and in 1949 this program was expanded to include cooperation with the Oklahoma Planning and Resources Board, In 1957 the State Legislature created the Oklahoma Water Resources Board as the principal State water agency and it became the principal local cooperator.
In the interpretation of magnetic and gravity anomalies, downward continuation of fields and calculation of first and second vertical derivatives of fields have been recognized as effective means for bringing into focus the latent diagnostic features of the data. A comprehensive system has been devised for the calculation of any or all of these derived fields on modern electronic digital computing equipment. The integral for analytic continuation above the plane is used with a Lagrange extrapolation polynomial to derive a general determinantal expression from which the field at depth and the various derivatives on the surface and at depth can be obtained. It is shown that the general formula includes as special cases some of the formulas appearing in the literature. The process involves a \"once for all depths\" summing of grid values on a system of concentric circles about each point followed by application of the appropriate one or more of the 19 sets of coefficients derived for the purpose. Theoretical and observed multilevel data are used to illustrate the processes and to discuss the errors. The coefficients can be used for less extensive computations on a desk calculator.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Exploration Geophysicists","doi":"10.1190/1.1438736","usgsCitation":"Henderson, R., 1960, A comprehensive system of automatic computation in magnetic and gravity interpretation: Geophysics, v. 25, no. 3, p. 569-585, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1438736.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"569","endPage":"585","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":385806,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"25","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Henderson, R.G.","contributorId":72521,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Henderson","given":"R.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":816107,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010536,"text":"70010536 - 1960 - Crystal structure refinement of reedmergnerite, the boron analog of albite","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2026-02-26T15:42:39.897743","indexId":"70010536","displayToPublicDate":"1960-12-16T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3338,"text":"Science","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Crystal structure refinement of reedmergnerite, the boron analog of albite","docAbstract":"Ordering of boron in a feldspar crystallographic site T1(0) has been found in reedmergnerite, which has silicon-oxygen and sodium-oxygen distances comparable to those in isostructural low albite. If a simple ionic model is assumed, calculated bond strengths yield a considerable charge imbalance in reedmergnerite, an indication of the inadequacy of the model with respect to these complex structures and of the speculative nature of conclusions based on such a model.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science","doi":"10.1126/science.132.3442.1837","issn":"00368075","usgsCitation":"Clark, J.R., and Appleman, D., 1960, Crystal structure refinement of reedmergnerite, the boron analog of albite: Science, v. 132, no. 3442, p. 1837-1838.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"1837","endPage":"1838","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219699,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"132","issue":"3442","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059fcfde4b0c8380cd4e576","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Clark, J. R.","contributorId":55764,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Clark","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359127,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Appleman, D.E.","contributorId":44909,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Appleman","given":"D.E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359126,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70220494,"text":"70220494 - 1960 - Geological age of the Claypool site, northeastern Colorado","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-05-17T12:40:17.718636","indexId":"70220494","displayToPublicDate":"1960-10-01T07:35:55","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":700,"text":"American Antiquity","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Geological age of the Claypool site, northeastern Colorado","docAbstract":"Artifacts related to the Cody complex occur in medium-grained sand that is spread as a blanket eolian deposit a few feet thick in the Claypool site area, Washington County, Colorado. The artifact-bearing sand lacks noticeable dunal topography and lies unconformably on marl of Yarmouth age and on waterlaid coarse sand and fine gravel of Kansan age that underlie the marl. The deposits underlying the artifact-bearing sand are much too old to date the artifacts precisely, but the physical characteristics of the artifact-bearing sand suggest that it was deposited under conditions cool and dry, rather than warm and dry, possibly during retreat of Valders ice that began about 10,000 years ago. A moderately mature Brown Soil about 5 feet thick developed on the sand, possibly about 7000 to 5000 years ago during a moist phase of the Thermal Maximum. Thus, the artifacts are possibly 10,000 to 7000 years old. Deposits which overlie the artifact-bearing sand reflect several episodes of erosion and sedimentation that are inferred to represent climatic changes.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society for American Archaeology","doi":"10.2307/276202","usgsCitation":"Malde, H., 1960, Geological age of the Claypool site, northeastern Colorado: American Antiquity, v. 26, no. 2, p. 215-222, https://doi.org/10.2307/276202.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"215","endPage":"222","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":385675,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","otherGeospatial":"northeastern Colorado","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -106.083984375,\n 38.85682013474361\n ],\n [\n -102.0849609375,\n 38.85682013474361\n ],\n [\n -102.0849609375,\n 41.0130657870063\n ],\n [\n -106.083984375,\n 41.0130657870063\n ],\n [\n -106.083984375,\n 38.85682013474361\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"26","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-01-20","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Malde, H.E.","contributorId":65863,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Malde","given":"H.E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":815764,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70221796,"text":"70221796 - 1960 - The chief oxide-burgin area discoveries, East Tintic district, Utah; A case history","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-07-07T12:28:44.400442","indexId":"70221796","displayToPublicDate":"1960-07-07T07:25:53","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The chief oxide-burgin area discoveries, East Tintic district, Utah; A case history","docAbstract":"The Burgin shaft is in the Chief Oxide area of the E. Tintic district, Utah, and is about a mile E. of any previously known ore bodies; workings from it are currently developing a substantial amount of commercial Pb-Zn ore in several blind ore bodies that lie in folded Paleozoic carbonate rock concealed beneath a blanket of Eocene lava. This area was mapped by Tower and Smith of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1897 and again by Lindgren and Loughlin in 1911, but no detailed work was done until after 1943 when a field party headed by T.S. Lovering began a study of the entire E. Tintic district. The history of the development of exploration concepts is summarized under Historical Summary. The E. Tintic mining district is in the E.-central part of a N.-trending fault-block mountain range near the eastern margin of the Great Basin; dominant structures of the range are a N.-trending syncline on the W. and a less well exposed anticline on the E. Both folds are cut by an intersecting system of transcurrent strike-slip faults and by minor thrust faults and normal faults of moderate displacement. A strong W.-dipping thrust fault cuts the anticline a short distance E. of the fold axis, but is hidden by Eocene lava throughout the E. Tintic district. The pre-Tertiary rocks range from Lower Cambrian to Upper Mississippian and exceed 7,000 ft. in total thickness; they are dominantly marine limestone and dolomite except for a thick basal Cambrian quartzite. The Tertiary rocks are chiefly dacitic lavas and pyroclastic deposits that are intruded by moderately persistent dikes and irregular bodies of monzonite and quartz porphyry. Nearly all the faulting and folding took place before the extrusion of the lavas on a rugged Eocene erosion surface. At about the time of the intrusion of monzonitic magma, many of the faults in the Paleozoic rock were re-opened and in the overlying lava some fracturing took place which was later accented by hydrothermal alteration. Most of the ore mined in the E. Tintic district has come from Pb-Zn-Ag replacement bodies in shattered Jasperoidized hydrothermal dolomite at the intersection of low angle faults and steep mineralized NE.-trending cross fractures. The U.S. Geological Survey studies of 1943 to 1957 concentrated on detailed mapping of geology and alteration in the E. Tintic district, together with field and laboratory studies of the relation of alteration to stages of mineralization and ore deposition. Trenching and core drilling were carried on after World War II to aid in interpreting the subrhyolite geology, and the Chief Oxide area was 1 of 4 localities tested by drilling. Study of the fossils, lithology, and alteration shown here in a deep drill core, together with the knowledge of the regional geology, led to an essentially correct interpretation of subrhyolite structure in the strongly discordant underlying Paleozoic rocks in which a mineralized tear fault cuts a strong thrust fault, and to the conclusion that ore stage mineralization was present in substantial amounts in the Paleozoic rocks below the Chief Oxide alteration patch in the quartz latite lava. Subsequent geothermal and geochemical work strengthened this conclusion, and the recent development work of the Bear Creek Mining Company, which sank the Burgin shaft, has shown the presence of Pb-Zn-Ag ore of commercial grade in substantial amount in blind ore bodies below the lava blanket in the Chief Oxide area.
One of the problems of the wartime program of studies of domestic manganese deposits concerned the identification of, and modes of origin of the manganese oxide minerals. Of the hundreds of specimens of the oxides collected in the United States, the minerals of about 250 specimens were identified by X-ray analysis; complete chemical analyses were made of about 35 specimens and partial analyses of about 150 specimens. This report presents the conclusions that arise out of a review of the geologic environment under which the specimens were found. One conclusion of this review concerns the supergene vs. hypogene origin of the oxides. In order to reach conclusions concerning the supergene and hypogene origin of the 33 oxides of manganese recognized thus far, it was necessary to define the criteria that seemed usable.One group of oxides appears to be persistently supergene: groutite, hydrohausmannite, lithiophorite, rancieite, hetaerolite, hydrohetaerolite, chalcophanite, crednerite, woodruffite, and wad. Another group of oxides appears to have been formed only by hypogene processes: manganosite, hausmannite, pyrochroite, bixbyite, galaxite, jacobsite, franklinite, pyrophanite, and ilmenite. A third group of oxides appear to have been formed by supergene processes in some places and by hypogene processes in other places: manganite, pyrolusite, ramsdellite, cryptomelane, psilomelane, hollandite, braunite, and coronadite.Another conclusion concerns a genetic relation between: (1) veins of manganese oxides in the southwest, largely in Tertiary volcanic rocks, (2) bodies of oxides in travertine aprons near active hot springs, and inactive Pleistocene springs, and (3) stratified oxides, largely in late Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the southwest. From the features of these three groups of deposits of oxides and their geologic and geographic distribution, it appears that hot water from great depth rose on fractures in areas of volcanic activity, deposited oxides in the fractures, appeared at the surface as hot springs, deposited oxides in the aprons near the springs and continuing to local basins, deposited manganese oxides with local debris as persistent beds in sediments, partly or wholly of volcanic origin.
The Kalamazoo report area includes about 150 square miles of Kalamazoo County, Mich. The area is principally one of industry and commerce, although agriculture also is of considerable importance. It has a moderate and humid climate and lies within the Lake Michigan “snow belt”. Precipitation averages about 35 inches per year. Snowfall averages about 55 inches.
The surface features of the area were formed during and since the glacial epoch and are classified as outwash plain, morainal highlands, and glaciated channels or drainageways. The area is formed largely on the remnants of an extensive outwash plain, which is breached by the Kalamazoo River in the northeastern part and is dissected elsewhere by several small tributaries to the river. Most of the land drained by these tributaries lies within the report area. A small portion of the southern part drains to the St. Joseph River.
The Coldwater shale, which underlies the glacial deposits throughout the area, and the deeper bedrock formations are not tapped for water by wells and they have little or no potential for future development.
Deposits of glacial drift, which are the source of water to all the wells in the area, have considerable potential for future development. These deposits range in thickness from about 40 feet along the Kalamazoo River to 350 feet where valleys were eroded in the bedrock surface. Permeable outwash and channel deposits are the sources of water for wells of large capacity. The moraines are formed dominantly by till of lower permeability which generally yields small supplies of water, but included sand and gravel beds of higher permeability yield larger supplies locally.
The aquifers of the Kalamazoo area are recharged by infiltration of rainfall and snowmelt and by infiltration of surface waters induced by pumping of wells near the surface sources. Water pumped from most of the municipal well fields is replenished in part by such induced infiltration. Many of the industrial wells along the Kalamazoo River and Portage Creek are recharged in part from these streams. Locally, however, recharge from the streams is impeded, as their bottoms have become partly sealed by silt and solid waste matter.
Water levels fluctuate with seasonal and annual changes in precipitation and in response to pumping. Pumpage by the city of Kalamazoo increased from about 300 million gallons in 1880 to 4.6 billion gallons in 1957. Despite the fact that billions of gallons are pumped annually from well fields in the Axtell Creek area, water levels in this vicinity have declined only a few feet, as the discharge from the fields is approximately compensated by recharge from precipitation and surface water. Pumpage of ground water by industry in 1948 was estimated at about 14 billion gallons, but the use of ground water for industrial purposes has since declined.
Aquifer tests indicate that the coefficient of transmissibility of aquifers in the area ranges from as little as 18,000 to as high as 300,000 gpd (gallons per day) per foot, and that ground water occurs under watertable and artesian conditions.
The ground water is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type. It is generally hard to very hard and commonly contains objectionable amounts of iron. Locally, the water contains appreciable amounts of sulfate. Study of the chemical analyses of waters from the area show that all of the tributaries to the Kalamazoo River are fed primarily by ground-water discharge.
","language":"English","publisher":"Michigan Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Lansing, MI","collaboration":"Prepared cooperatively by the United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey ","usgsCitation":"Deutsch, M., Vanlier, K., and Giroux, P., 1960, Ground-water hydrology and glacial geology of the Kalamazoo area, Michigan: Progress Report 23, 22 p.","productDescription":"22 p.","costCenters":[{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":335226,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":335225,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-PR23_216205_7.PDF","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Michigan","otherGeospatial":"Kalamazoo area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -85.70228576660156,\n 42.200038266046754\n ],\n [\n -85.70228576660156,\n 42.38619069220356\n ],\n [\n -85.49114227294922,\n 42.38619069220356\n ],\n [\n -85.49114227294922,\n 42.200038266046754\n ],\n [\n -85.70228576660156,\n 42.200038266046754\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58a2d3c5e4b0c82512869a4c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Deutsch, Morris","contributorId":69119,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Deutsch","given":"Morris","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668368,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Vanlier, K.E.","contributorId":24332,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Vanlier","given":"K.E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668369,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Giroux, P.R.","contributorId":59055,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Giroux","given":"P.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668370,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70160871,"text":"70160871 - 1960 - Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Kauai, Hawaii","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-01-06T08:58:28","indexId":"70160871","displayToPublicDate":"1960-01-01T12:15:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":242,"text":"Bulletin","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":4}},"seriesNumber":"13","title":"Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Kauai, Hawaii","docAbstract":"Kauai is one of the oldest, and is structurally the most complicated, of the Hawaiian Islands. Like the others, it consists principally of a huge shield volcano, built up from the sea floor by many thousands of thin flows of basaltic lava. The volume of the Kauai shield was on the order of 1,000 cubic miles. Through much of its growth it must have resembled rather closely the presently active shield volcano Mauna Loa, on the island of Hawaii. When the Kauai volcano started its growth is not known with certainty, but it is believed that activity started late in the Tertiary period, possibly in the early or middle part of the Pliocene epoch. Growth of the shield was rapid and probably was completed before the end of the Pliocene.
Toward the end of the growth of the shield, its summit collapsed to form a broad caldera, the largest that has been found in the Hawaiian Islands. Like the calderas of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, that of Kauai volcano had boundaries that were, in part, rather indefinite. The principal depression was bordered by less depressed fault blocks, some of which merged imperceptibly with the outer slopes of the volcano. Elsewhere the caldera rim was low, and flows spilled over it onto the outer slopes. The well-defined central depression of the Kauai caldera was approximately 10 to 12 miles across.
At about the same time as the formation of the major caldera, another, smaller caldera was formed by collapse around a minor eruptive center on the southeastern side of the Kauai shield. Lavas accumulated in the calderas, gradually filling them and burying banks of talus that formed along the foot of the boundary cliffs. The caldera-filling lavas differed from those that built the major portion of the shield in being much thicker and more massive as a result of ponding in the depressions. The petrographic types for the most part are the same throughout. Both the flank flows that built most of the shield and the flows that filled the calderas are predominantly olivine basalt. Picrite-basalt (oceanite), containing very abundant large phenocrysts of olivine, and basalt containing little or no olivine are present but together comprise less than 10 percent of the whole. Late in the period of filling of the major caldera a small amount of basaltic andesine andesite was extruded.
Near the end of the period of filling of the major caldera further collapse occurred, forming a large graben on the southwestern side of the shield. Lava flows erupting within the caldera poured southwestward over the cliff bounding the graben and spread over the gently sloping graben floor. Near the present Waimea Canyon their advance was obstructed by the fault scarp at the west edge of the graben. The cliff along the northeast edge of the graben eventually was buried by lava flows from within the caldera, but that along the west edge continued to stand above the level of the flows in the graben. The flows that accumulated in the graben are of the same types as those that filled the caldera, and like them are mostly thick and massive because of ponding by the graben walls and of the gentle slopes of the graben floor over which they spread.
The rocks of the major Kauai shield volcano are known as the Waimea Canyon volcanic series. The thin flows that accumulated on the flanks of the shield, which compose the major portion of the volcanic edifice, are named the Napali formation of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series. The rocks that accumulated in the big summit caldera are named the Olokele formation, and those that filled the small caldera on the southeast flank of the shield are named the Haupu formation. The volcanic rocks accumulated in the graben on the southwestern side of the shield are named the Makaweli formation of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series, and sedimentary rocks interbedded with them are known as the Mokuone member of the Makaweli formation.
Few vents of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series have been recognized, probably because most of them have been destroyed by erosion or are buried by later lavas. Large numbers of dikes cut the lavas of the Napali formation along Waimea Canyon and the Napali Coast and along the east edge of the Waialeale massif. Fewer dikes are found in the other members of the series. Some tendency toward radial arrangement of the dikes is present, but the dominant trend all over the island is east-northeastward.
Another great collapse took place on the eastern flank of the volcano at about the time the major shield became extinct, or shortly afterward. A subcircular graben 6 or 7 miles across sank several thousand feet, forming a broad depression between the Waialeale massif on the west and Kalepa and Nonou ridges on the east. This collapsed structure cannot be as clearly demonstrated as the Makaweli graben on the southwest side of the shield, because its walls have been greatly eroded and its floor is deeply buried by lavas of the later Koloa volcanic series. It appears, however, to be the only reasonable explanation of the physiography of the eastern side of the island.
After the completion of the great Kauai shield came a long period of erosion during which no volcanic activity occurred. Waves cut high sea cliffs around the island, and streams cut canyons as much as 3,000 feet deep. Thick soil formed over much of the mountain.
Then volcanism was renewed. Eruption occurred from a series of minor vents arranged in nearly north-south and northeast-southwest lines across the eastern two-thirds of the island. The lavas, cinder cones, and ash beds of this period of volcanism are known as the Koloa volcanic series. Lavas of the Koloa volcanic series include olivine basalt, picrite-basalt (mimosite) with few phenocrysts of olivine, basanite, nepheline basalt, melilite-nepheline basalt, and ankaratrite (nepheline basalt very rich in pyroxene and olivine). Inclusions of dunite, composed almost entirely of olivine, are common in flows of the Koloa. Just before and during the eruption of the Koloa volcanic series, voluminous landslides and mudflows brought down a large amount of rock debris and soil from the steep slopes of the mountainous central upland and deposited it as breccias at the foot of the steep slopes in valley heads and along the border of the marginal lowland. Streams distributed part of the material across the lowland. The breccias and conglomerates thus formed, and later buried by lavas of the Koloa volcanic series, are named the Palikea formation of the Koloa volcanic series.
The structures formed at Koloa vents include cinder cones, one tuff cone, and lava cones. The latter are miniature shields resembling the major shield volcano, formed by repeated outpourings of fluid lava. The tuff cone, at the west side of Kilauea Bay, was formed by phreatomagmatic explosions caused by rising magma coming in contact with water-saturated rocks.
Volcanism during Koloa time continued for a long period but was not continuous over the entire area. Locally, long periods of quiet occurred, allowing streams to re-excavate some of the canyons filled by earlier flows of the Koloa volcanic series, and weathering to form soils later buried by new flows. Some of the canyons thus formed during the time when the Koloa was being deposited were several hundred feet deep. Volcanism probably continued throughout most of the Pleistocene epoch. The latest flow of the Koloa volcanic series appears very recent, and rests on lithified calcareous dunes formed during one of the Pleistocene low stands of the sea.
During the Pleistocene epoch stream valleys and sea cliffs were eroded to base levels governed by one or more stands of the sea more than 100 feet below present sea level. Beaches of calcareous sand were formed, and the sand blown inland to form calcareous dunes, now lithified. A test boring near Moloaa penetrated calcareous sand 160 feet below sea level, at the foot of a high sea cliff. Coral reef also was built around part or all of the island, and in part buried by lavas of the Koloa volcanic series. The explosions that built the tuff cone at Kilauea Bay threw up fragments of limestone from a buried reef. Much of the apron of lavas of the Kalna series around the northeastern side of the island probably rests on a platform formed below present sea level by wave erosion and the growth of coral reef.
As the sea rose around the island, the valley mouths were alluviated. Several levels of the sea higher than the present one probably are represented. Some stream terraces may be graded to a stand of the sea as high as 260 feet above present sea level, but no positive evidence for stands higher than 25 feet have been found. Well-preserved shorelines are recognized approximately 25 and 5 feet above sea level. Much of the present coral reef appears to have been formed when the sea stood about 5 feet higher than now, and reduced to its present level by solutional weathering and wave erosion.
The lavas of the Napali formation of the Waimea Canyon volcanic series are highly permeable. They carry basal water over much of the island, and yield it freely to wells. This water is fresh everywhere except very close to the coast on the leeward side of the island. In some areas they may contain water confined at high levels between dikes. The lavas of the Olokele and Haupu formations are moderately to poorly permeable. They probably contain fresh water at sea level, but would not yield it readily to wells. Locally, ash beds perch small bodies of fresh water at high levels in the lavas of the Olokele formation, but these are of no economic importance. The lavas of the Makaweli formation also arc moderately to poorly permeable. They carry fresh or brackish water at sea level. In general, they yield water to wells less readily than the lavas of the Napali formation, but more readily than the lavas of the Olokele. The conglomerates and breccias of the Mokuone member are poorly permeable, but are not known to perch more than a slight amount of water in the overlying lavas,
The lava flows of the Koloa volcanic series are poorly to moderately permeable. They carry fresh or brackish water at sea level, but generally yield it slowly to wells. Locally, small bodies of fresh water are perched at high levels in the lavas of the Koloa by beds of ash and soil and by breccia and conglomerate of the Palikea formation.
Both the older and the younger alluvium generally are poorly permeable, but contain small amounts of fresh or brackish water. The lithified calcareous dunes are permeable, but they appear to contain only brackish water. Lagoon deposits on the Mana plain are poorly to moderately permeable and yield brackish water to wells.
The resolution of CsI(Tl) for Po210 alpha particles has been measured as a function of crystal thickness. The best resolution of a ½‐in. diam cylindrical crystal was obtained for a thickness of 0.38 mm, and the effect of thickness on the resolution is discussed. Based on the proposed model, a conical crystal was designed, which yielded a line width of 1.8% for Po210 alpha particles with a selected photomultiplier tube.
","language":"English","publisher":"AIP Publishing","doi":"10.1063/1.1717121","usgsCitation":"Martinez, P., and Senftle, F.E., 1960, Effect of crystal thickness and geometry on the alpha-particle resolution of CsI (Tl): Review of Scientific Instruments, v. 31, no. 9, p. 974-977, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1717121.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"974","endPage":"977","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219463,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"31","issue":"9","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a05cde4b0c8380cd50f82","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Martinez, P.","contributorId":38706,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Martinez","given":"P.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359086,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Senftle, F. E.","contributorId":47788,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Senftle","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359087,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70010620,"text":"70010620 - 1960 - Determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-08-31T16:04:51.909499","indexId":"70010620","displayToPublicDate":"1960-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks","docAbstract":"A modified niobium thiocyanate spectrophotometric procedure relatively insensitive to titanium interference is presented. Elements such as tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and rhenium, which seriously interfere in the spectrophotometric determination of niobium, are separated by simple sodium hydroxide fusion and leach; iron and magnesium are used as carriers for the niobium. Tolerance limits are given for 28 elements in the spectrophotometric method. Specific application is made to the determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks. The granite G-1 contains 0.0022% niobium and the diabase W-1 0.00096% niobium.","language":"English","publisher":"ACS Publications","doi":"10.1021/ac60157a035","usgsCitation":"Grimaldi, F.S., 1960, Determination of niobium in the parts per million range in rocks: Analytical Chemistry, v. 32, no. 1, p. 119-121, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60157a035.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"119","endPage":"121","numberOfPages":"3","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219247,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"32","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059ffb9e4b0c8380cd4f365","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Grimaldi, F. S.","contributorId":94286,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Grimaldi","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359278,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":3095,"text":"wsp1469 - 1959 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":22843,"text":"ofr5636 - 1956 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","indexId":"ofr5636","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":3095,"text":"wsp1469 - 1959 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","indexId":"wsp1469","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":44087,"text":"ofr5466 - 1954 - Table showing estimated ground-water storage capacity of the San Joaquin Valley, California, and map showing ground-water storage units in the San Joaquin Valley","indexId":"ofr5466","publicationYear":"1954","noYear":false,"title":"Table showing estimated ground-water storage capacity of the San Joaquin Valley, California, and map showing ground-water storage units in the San Joaquin Valley"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":3095,"text":"wsp1469 - 1959 - Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","indexId":"wsp1469","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California"},"id":2}],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:30","indexId":"wsp1469","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1469","title":"Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California","docAbstract":"The San Joaquin Valley includes roughly the southern two-thirds of the Great \r\nCentral Valley of California. It is a broad structural trough surrounded by \r\nmountains. The northern part of the valley drains through the San Joaquin \r\nRiver northward to San Francisco Bay ; the southern part of the valley normally \r\nis a basin of interior drainage tributary to evaporation sumps in the trough of \r\nthe valley, chiefly Tulare and Buena Vista Lake beds. \r\nIn years of normal discharge most of the streamflow in the southern part of \r\nthe valley not diverted for irrigation finds its way to Tulare and Buena Vista \r\nLake beds. In the historic past, however, during years of heavy floods the low \r\ndivide between Buena Vista and Tulare Lakes and the low divide between \r\nTulare Lake and the San Joaquin River were overtopped and through-flowing \r\ndrainage occurred over the full length of the valley. Because the Tulare Lake \r\nbed is the lowest point and also the largest sump, this whole basin of interior \r\ndrainage is commonly referred to as the Tulare Lake drainage basin. \r\nAverage annual precipitation ranges from more than 15 inches in the north- \r\neastern part of the valley to less than 4 inches in the southwestern part. The \r\nprecipitation decreases from north to south and from east to west across the \r\nvalley. Streamflow, the critical quantity in the water supply, depends almost \r\nwholly on the amount and distribution of precipitation in the Sierra Nevada to \r\nthe east. Much of this precipitation falls as snow, and the snowpack acts as a \r\nnatural reservoir retaining much of the annual runoff until late spring and early \r\nsummer. \r\nThe mean seasonal runoff to the San Joaquin Valley is nearly 10 million acre- \r\nfeet, of which about two-thirds is tributary to the San Joaquin River; the remaining third is tributary to Tulare Lake drainage basin. In 1952 about 8.5 \r\nmillion acre-feet of surface water was diverted for irrigation. Withdrawals of \r\nground water for irrigation in 1952 approximated 7.5 million acre-feet. \r\nThe surface of the San Joaquin Valley is not a featureless plain but is characterized by various types of physiography such as dissected uplands, low \r\nalluvial plains and fans, river flood plains and channels, and overflow lands \r\nand lake bottoms. \r\nThe dissected uplands fringe the valley along its mountain borders. They are \r\nunderlain by unconsolidated to semiconsolidated continental deposits of late \r\nTertiary and early Quaternary age which have been moderately tilted and \r\nfolded. The topography of these uplands ranges from deeply dissected hill land \r\nhaving a relief of several hundred feet to gently rolling land whose relief Is only \r\na few feet. \r\nThe low plains and fans border the dissected uplands along their valley- \r\nward margins. They are generally fiat to gently undulating and featureless and are underlain by undeformed to slightly deformed alluvial deposits of \r\nQuaternary age. \r\nThe river flood plains and channels lie along the San Joaquia and Kings \r\nRivers in the axial part of the valley and along the major east-side streams. \r\nWhere the rivers are incised below the general land surface, the flood plains are \r\nwell defined; but in the axial trough of the valley, where the rivers are flanked \r\nby low-lying overflow lands, the flood-plain and channel deposits are confined to \r\nthe stream channel and to the natural levees that slope away from the river. \r\nOverflow lands and lake bottoms include the historic beds of Tulare, Buena \r\nVista, and Kern Lakes in the southern part of the valley, and the low-lying lands \r\nin the axial trough between the low alluvial plains and fans and the natural \r\nlevees of the San Joaquin River and its major tributaries. They are level and \r\nfeatureless and are underlain by lake and swamp deposits of Recent age. \r\nThe San Joaquin Valley is a great structural downwarp between the tilted \r\nblock of the Sierra Nevada on the east and the complexly folded and faulted \r\nCoast Ranges on the we","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1469","usgsCitation":"Davis, G.H., Green, J.H., Olmsted, F.H., and Brown, D.W., 1959, Ground-water conditions and storage capacity in the San Joaquin Valley, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1469, viii, 287 p. :diagrs., tables. and portfolio (fold. maps (part col.) diagrs., profiles) ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1469.","productDescription":"viii, 287 p. :diagrs., tables. and portfolio (fold. maps (part col.) diagrs., profiles) ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138655,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":29978,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-01.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29979,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-02.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29980,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-03.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29981,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-04.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29982,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-05.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29983,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-06.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29984,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-07.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29985,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-08.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29986,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-09.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29987,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-10.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29988,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-11.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29989,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-12.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29990,"rank":412,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-13.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29991,"rank":413,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-14.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29992,"rank":414,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-15.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29993,"rank":415,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-16.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29994,"rank":416,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-17.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29995,"rank":417,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-18.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29996,"rank":418,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-19.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29997,"rank":419,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-20.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29998,"rank":420,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-21.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":29999,"rank":421,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-22.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30000,"rank":422,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-23.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30001,"rank":423,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-24.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30002,"rank":424,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-25.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30003,"rank":425,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-26.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30004,"rank":426,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-27.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30005,"rank":427,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-28.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30006,"rank":428,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/plate-29.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":30007,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1469/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66d330","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Davis, G. H.","contributorId":40963,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Davis","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146265,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Green, J. H.","contributorId":43312,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Green","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":146266,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Olmsted, F. H.","contributorId":24765,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Olmsted","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146264,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Brown, D. W.","contributorId":63370,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brown","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146267,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":15967,"text":"ofr59108 - 1959 - Impact mechanics at Meteor Crater, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:13","indexId":"ofr59108","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"59-108","title":"Impact mechanics at Meteor Crater, Arizona","docAbstract":"Meteor Crator is a bowl-shaped depression encompassed by a rim composed chiefly of debris stacked in layers of different composition. Original bedrock stratigraphy is preserved, inverted, in the debris. The debris rests on older disturbed strata, which are turned up at moderate to steep angles in the wall of the crater and are locally overturned near the contact with the debris. These features of Meteor Crater correspond closely to those of a crater produced by nuclear explosion where depth of burial of the device was about 1/5 the diameter of the resultant crater.\r\n\r\nStudies of craters formed by detonation of nuclear devices show that structures of the crater rims are sensitive to the depth of explosion scaled to the yield of the device. The structure of Meteor Crater is such as would be produced by a very strong shock originating about at the level of the present crater floor, 400 feet below the original surface.\r\n\r\nAt supersonic to hypersonic velocity an impacting meteorite penetrates the ground by a complex mechanism that includes compression of the target rocks and the meteorite by shock as well as hydrodynamic flow of the compressed material under high pressure and temperature. The depth of penetration of the meteorite, before it loses its integrity as a single body, is a function primarily of the velocity and shape of the meteorite and the densities and equations of state of the meteorite and target. The intensely compressed material then becomes dispersed in a large volume of breccia formed in the expanding shock wave.\r\n\r\nAn impact velocity of about 15 km/sec is consonant with the geology of Meteor Crater in light of the experimental equation of state of iron and inferred compressibility of the target rocks. The kinetic energy of the meteorite is estimated by scaling to have been from 1.4 to 1.7 megatons TNT equivalent.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr59108","usgsCitation":"Shoemaker, E.M., 1959, Impact mechanics at Meteor Crater, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 59-108, ii, 55 p. :ill. (some folded), maps (some folded) ;28 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr59108.","productDescription":"ii, 55 p. :ill. (some folded), maps (some folded) ;28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":106297,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_7949.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"7949"},{"id":149112,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":44926,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44927,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44928,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44929,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44930,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44931,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44932,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/plate-7.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44933,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1959/0108/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49cfe4b07f02db5da76e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Shoemaker, Eugene Merle","contributorId":20342,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Shoemaker","given":"Eugene","email":"","middleInitial":"Merle","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":172022,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":4757,"text":"wsp1473_ed1 - 1959 - Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-11-25T11:55:33","indexId":"wsp1473_ed1","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1473","title":"Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water","docAbstract":"The chemical composition of natural water is derived from many different sources of solutes, including gases and aerosols from the atmosphere, weathering and erosion of rocks and soil, solution or precipitation reactions occurring below the land surface, and cultural effects resulting from activities of man. Some of the processes of solution or precipitation of minerals can be closely evaluated by means of principles of chemical equilibrium including the law of mass action and the Nernst equation. Other processes are irreversible and require consideration of reaction mechanisms and rates. The chemical composition of the crustal rocks of the earth and the composition of the ocean and the atmosphere are significant in evaluating sources of solutes in natural fresh water.
\nThe ways in which solutes are taken up or precipitated and the amounts present in solution are influenced by many environmental factors, especially climate, structure and position: of rock strata, and biochemical effects associated with life cycles of plants and animals, both microscopic and macroscopic. Taken all together and in application with the further influence of the general circulation of all water in the hydrologic cycle, the chemical principles and environmental factors form a basis for the developing science of natural-water chemistry.
\nFundamental data used in the determination of water quality are obtained by the chemical analysis of water samples in the laboratory or onsite sensing of chemical properties in the field. Sampling is complicated by changes in composition of moving water and the effects of particulate suspended material. Most of the constituents determined are reported in gravimetric units, usually milligrams per liter or milliequivalents per liter.
\nMore than 60 constituents and properties are included in water analyses frequently enough to provide a basis for consideration of the sources from which each is generally derived, most probable forms of elements and ions in solution, solubility controls, expected concentration ranges and other chemical factors. Concentrations of elements that are commonly present in amounts less than a few tens of micrograms per liter cannot always be easily explained, but present information suggests many are controlled by solubility of hydroxide or carbonate or by sorption on solid particles.
\nChemical analyses may be grouped and statistically evaluated by averages, frequency distributions, or ion correlations to summarize large volumes of data. Graphing of analyses or of groups of analyses aids in showing chemical relationships among waters, probable sources of solutes, areal water-quality regimen, and water-resources evaluation. Graphs may show water type based on chemical composition, relationships among ions, or groups of ions in individual waters or many waters considered simultaneously. The relationships of water quality to hydrologic parameters, such as stream discharge rate or ground-water flow patterns, can be shown by mathematical equations, graphs, and maps.
\nAbout 75 water analyses selected from the literature are tabulated to illustrate the relationships described, and some of these, along with many others that are not tabulated, are also utilized in demonstrating graphing and mapping techniques.
\nRelationships of water composition to source rock type are illustrated by graphs of some of the tabulated analyses. Activities of man may modify water composition extensively through direct effects of pollution and indirect results of water development, such as intrusion of sea water in ground-water aquifiers.
\nWater-quality standards for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use have been published by various agencies. Irrigation project requirements for water quality are particularly intricate.
\nFundamental knowledge of processes that control natural water composition is required for rational management of water quality.
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method of spectrographic analysis for use in geochemical exploration work","docAbstract":"The method to be described is a modification of an earlier method of semiquantitative procedure. Through its use 34 elements can be determined simultaneously in one sample, which may be a rock, soil, mineral, or an ore. For many of these elements concentration ranges from one to ten thousand parts per million (0.0001 to 1 percent) or more can be investigated (see table 1). The modification in the method is the addition of 20mg of a CaCO3-graphite mixture (1:5) on top of the sample-graphite powder. This addition gives a smoother burning arc and minimizes sample loss during arcing, so that the former variability of results is also minimized. The improved procedure has been tested in a truck-mounted spectrographic laboratory constructed and used by the U. S. Geological Survey in geochemical exploration.