During 1984, over 2300 km of multichannel seismic-reflection data were recorded by the U.S. Geological Survey in the western Ross Sea and Iselin Bank regions. A temporary loss and sinking of the streamer led to increasing the streamer tow depth to 20 m, which resulted in some attenuation of frequencies in the 30-50 Hz range but no significant difference in resolution of the stacked data. Severe water bottom multiples were encountered and removed by dip-filtering, weighted stacking, and severe post-NMO muting.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"The Anarctic continental margin geology and geophysics of the Western Ross Sea","language":"English","publisher":"CircumPacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources","usgsCitation":"Dadisman, S.V., Ryan, H.F., and Mann, D.M., 1987, Recording and processing procedures for multi-channel seismic-reflection data collected in the western Ross Sea, Antarctica, chap. of The Anarctic continental margin geology and geophysics of the Western Ross Sea, v. 5B, p. 17-26.","productDescription":"10 p.","startPage":"17","endPage":"26","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":186,"text":"Coastal and Marine Geology Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":297043,"rank":1,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://archives.datapages.com/data/circ_pac/6/17_b.htm"},{"id":310877,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"otherGeospatial":"Ross Sea","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -185.80078125,\n -65.5129625532949\n ],\n [\n -124.8046875,\n -67.67608458198099\n ],\n [\n -127.265625,\n -73.72659470212253\n ],\n [\n -148.53515625,\n -75.80211845876491\n ],\n [\n -152.2265625,\n -77.27385473785674\n ],\n [\n -157.85156249999997,\n -77.157162522661\n ],\n [\n -161.54296875,\n -78.24243607612065\n ],\n [\n -164.8828125,\n -78.56048828398782\n ],\n [\n -176.30859375,\n -78.09829559916763\n ],\n [\n -180.703125,\n -77.73028235402455\n ],\n [\n -189.140625,\n -77.3895040053973\n ],\n [\n -192.65625,\n -77.27385473785674\n ],\n [\n -194.4140625,\n -77.65534600967777\n ],\n [\n -195.64453125,\n -77.8418477505252\n ],\n [\n -196.875,\n -77.03941844273027\n ],\n [\n -197.40234375,\n -75.84516854027044\n ],\n [\n -195.82031249999997,\n -74.1160468394894\n ],\n [\n -191.95312499999997,\n -73.57816726137321\n ],\n [\n -189.84375,\n -72.76406472320436\n ],\n [\n -189.31640625,\n -71.58053179556501\n ],\n [\n -186.328125,\n -65.87472467098547\n ],\n [\n -185.80078125,\n -65.5129625532949\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"5B","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5634963fe4b048076347ff5a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Dadisman, Shawn V. sdadisman@usgs.gov","contributorId":2207,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dadisman","given":"Shawn","email":"sdadisman@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"V.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":537736,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Ryan, Holly F. hryan@usgs.gov","contributorId":2375,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ryan","given":"Holly","email":"hryan@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":537737,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Mann, Dennis M.","contributorId":50528,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mann","given":"Dennis","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":537738,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70207854,"text":"70207854 - 1987 - Ionic conductivity of quartz: DC time dependence and transition in charge carriers","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-07-09T14:53:28.827147","indexId":"70207854","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-15T16:23:03","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":738,"text":"American Mineralogist","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Ionic conductivity of quartz: DC time dependence and transition in charge carriers","docAbstract":"The time dependence of DC electrical conductivity in the c-axis direction of quartz can be accounted for by a transition in charge carriers from interstitial alkali impurities to interstitial H. The diffusive transport rates of Li, Na, and K are rapid parallel to c and have been shown to be responsible for the highly anisotropic electrical conductivity measured at short times. With increasing time, however, conductivities parallel to c decrease progressively to values that are roughly equal to those measured perpendicular to c. Comparison of these ultimate, nearly isotropic conductivities with those derived from recent measurements of H diffusion parallel and perpendicular to c suggests that H interstitials are the principal charge carriers at long times. The transient decrease in conductivities parallel to c is interpreted to result from depletion of initial alkali impurities, whereas the steady-state conductivities measured at long times may be sustained by the steady supply of H by the dissociation of atmospheric water vapor. The mobility of H along the c axis is anomalously low and at variance with the trend of increasing mobility with decreasing ionic radius exhibited by Cs, Rb, K, Na, and Li. Although the elastic lattice distortions required for H transport are insignificant in comparison with those required by the larger alkali impurities, the strong association of H interstitials with Al substitutions for Si may be responsible for the relatively low H mobilities.
","language":"English","usgsCitation":"Kronenberg, A.K., and Kirby, S.H., 1987, Ionic conductivity of quartz: DC time dependence and transition in charge carriers: American Mineralogist, v. 72, no. 7-8, p. 739-747.","productDescription":"9 p.","startPage":"739","endPage":"747","costCenters":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":371282,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"72","issue":"7-8","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kronenberg, A. K.","contributorId":94787,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Kronenberg","given":"A.","email":"","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":779539,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Kirby, Stephen H. 0000-0003-1636-4688 skirby@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1636-4688","contributorId":2752,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kirby","given":"Stephen","email":"skirby@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":779540,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70207782,"text":"70207782 - 1987 - Inorganic and organic geochemistry of Eocene to Cretaceous strata recovered from the lower continental rise, North American Basin, Site 603, Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 93","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-02-02T15:54:15.603156","indexId":"70207782","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-10T11:26:47","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1996,"text":"Initial Reports of the D.S.D.P.","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Inorganic and organic geochemistry of Eocene to Cretaceous strata recovered from the lower continental rise, North American Basin, Site 603, Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 93","docAbstract":"About one hundred samples of sediments and rocks recovered in Hole 603B were analyzed for type, abundance, and isotopic composition of organic matter, using a combination of Rock-Eval pyrolysis, C-H-N-S elemental analysis, and isotope-ratio mass spectrometry. Concentrations of major, minor, and trace inorganic elements were determined with a combination of X-ray fluorescence and induction-coupled plasma spectrometry.
The oldest strata recovered in Hole 603B (lithologic Unit V) consist of interbedded light-colored limestones and marlstones, and black calcareous claystones of Neocomian age. The inorganic and organic geochemical results suggest a very terrigenous aspect to the black claystones. The organic geochemical results indicate that the limestones and marlstones contain a mixture of highly degraded marine and terrestrial organic matter. Comparison of the Neocomian carbonates at Site 603 with those on the other side of the North Atlantic, off Northwest Africa at Site 367, shows that the organic matter at Site 367 contains more marine organic matter, as indicated by higher pyrolysis hydrogen indices and lighter values of δ13C. Comparison of inorganic geochemical results for the carbonate lithologies at Site 603 with those for carbonate lithologies at Site 367 suggests that the Site 603 carbonates may contain clastic material from both North American and African sources. The black claystones at Site 603, on the other hand, probably were derived almost entirely from North American clastic sources.
Lithologic Unit IV overlying the Neocomian carbonates, consists of interbedded red, green, and black claystones. The black claystones at Site 603 contain more than ten times the organic carbon concentration of the interbedded green claystones. The average concentration of organic carbon in the black claystones (2.8%), however, is low relative to most mid-Cretaceous black claystones and shales in the Atlantic, particularly those found off Northwest Africa. The geochemical data all suggest that the organic matter in the black claystones is more abundant but generally more degraded than the organic matter in the green claystones, and that it was derived mainly from terrestrial sources and deposited in oxygenated bottom waters. The increased percentage of black claystone beds in the upper Cenomanian section, and the presence of more hydrogen-rich organic matter in this part of the section, probably resulted from the increased production and accumulation of marine organic matter that is represented worldwide near the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary in deep-sea and land sections. A few upper Cenomanian black claystone samples that have hydrogen indices > 150 also contain particularly high concentrations of V and Zn. Most samples of black claystone, however, are not particularly metal-rich compared with other black claystones and shales. Compared with red claystones from lithologic Unit IV, the green and black claystones are enriched in many trace transition elements, especially V, Zn, Cu, Co, and Pb.
The main difference between the \"carbonaceous\" claystones of lithologic Unit IV and \"variegated\" or \"multicolored\" claystones of the overlying Upper Cretaceous to lower Tertiary Unit III is the absence of black claystone beds. As observed at several other sites (105 and 386), the multicolored claystones at Site 603 are somewhat enriched in several trace transition elements—especially Cu, Ni, and Cr—relative to most deep-sea clays. The multicolored claystones are not enriched in Fe and Mn, and therefore are not \"metalliferous\" sediments in the sense of those found at several locations in the eastern Pacific. The source of the slightly elevated concentrations of transition metals in the multicolored claystones probably is upward advection and diffusion of metals from the black claystones of the underlying Hatteras Formation.
The red, orange, and green claystone beds of lithologic Unit II (Eocene), like those of Unit III, really represent a continuation of deposition of multicolored claystone that began after the deposition of the Neocomian carbonates. The color of the few black beds that occur within this unit results from high concentrations of manganese oxide rather than high concentrations of organic matter.
","language":"English","publisher":"Deep Sea Drilling Project","doi":"10.2973/dsdp.proc.93.146.1987","usgsCitation":"Dean, W.E., and Arthur, M., 1987, Inorganic and organic geochemistry of Eocene to Cretaceous strata recovered from the lower continental rise, North American Basin, Site 603, Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 93: Initial Reports of the D.S.D.P., v. 93, p. 1093-1137, https://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.93.146.1987.","productDescription":"45 p.","startPage":"1093","endPage":"1137","costCenters":[{"id":318,"text":"Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":488881,"rank":2,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"http://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.93.146.1987","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":371157,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"93","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Dean, Walter E. dean@usgs.gov","contributorId":1801,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dean","given":"Walter","email":"dean@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[{"id":318,"text":"Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":779313,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Arthur, M.A.","contributorId":24791,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Arthur","given":"M.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":779314,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70201411,"text":"70201411 - 1987 - I. Thermal evolution of Ganymede and implications for surface features. II. Magnetohydrodynamic constraints on deep zonal flow in the giant planets. III. A fast finite-element algorithm for two-dimensional photoclinometry","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-11-22T15:18:10.64313","indexId":"70201411","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-09T14:46:20","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":21,"text":"Thesis"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":28,"text":"Thesis"},"title":"I. Thermal evolution of Ganymede and implications for surface features. II. Magnetohydrodynamic constraints on deep zonal flow in the giant planets. III. A fast finite-element algorithm for two-dimensional photoclinometry","docAbstract":"The work is divided into three independent papers:
PAPER I:
Thermal evolution models are presented for Ganymede, assuming a mostly differentiated initial state of a water ocean overlying a rock layer. The only heat sources are assumed to be primordial heat (provided by accretion) and the long-lived radiogenic heat sources in the rock component. As Ganymede cools, the ocean thins, and two ice layers develop, one above composed of ice I, and the other below composed of high-pressure polymorphs of ice. Subsolidus convection proceeds separately in each ice layer, its transport of heat calculated using a simple parameterized convection scheme and the most recent data on ice rheology. The model requires that the average entropy of the deep ice layer exceed that of the ice I layer. If the residual ocean separating these layers becomes thin enough, then a Rayleigh-Taylor-like (\"diapiric\") instability may ensue, driven by the greater entropy of the deeper ice and merging the two ice mantles into a single convective layer. This instability is not predicted by linear analysis but occurs for plausible finite amplitude perturbations associated with large Rayleigh number convection. The resulting warm ice diapirs may lead to a dramatic \"heat pulse\" at the surface and to fracturing of the lithosphere, and may be directly or indirectly responsible for resurfacing and grooved terrain formation on Ganymede. The timing of this event depends rather sensitively on poorly known rheological parameters but could be consistent with chronologies deduced from estimated cratering rates. Irrespective of the occurrence or importance of the heat pulse, we find that lithospheric fracturing requires rapid stress loading (on a timescale ≾ 104) years). Such a timescale can be realized by warm ice diapirism, but not directly by gradual global expansion. In the absence of any quantitative and self-consistent model for the resurfacing of Ganymede by liquid water, we favor resurfacing by warm ice flows,which we demonstrate to be physically possible, a plausible consequence of our models, compatible with existing observations, and a hypothesis testable by Galileo. We discuss core formation as an alternative driver for resurfacing, and conclude that it is less attractive. We also consider anew the puzzle of why Callisto differs so greatly from Ganymede, offering several possible explanations. The models presented do not provide a compelling explanation for all aspects of Ganymedean geological evolution, since we have identified several potential problems, most notably the apparently extended period of grooved terrain formation (several hundred million years), which is difficult to reconcile with the heat pulse phenomenon.
PAPER II:
The observed zonal flows of the giant planets will, if they penetrate below the visible atmosphere, interact significantly with the planetary magnetic field outside the metalized core. The appropriate measure of this interaction is the Chandrasekhar number Q = (H2)/(4πρνα2λ) (where H = radial component of the magnetic field, ν = eddy viscosity, λ = magnetic diffusivity, α-1 = lengthscale on which λ varies); at depths where Q ≳ 1 the velocity will be forced to oscillate on a small lengthscale or decay to zero. We estimate the conductivity due to semiconduction in H2 (Jupiter, Saturn) and ionization in H2O (Uranus, Neptune) as a function of depth; the value λ ≃ 1010 cm2s-1 needed for Q = 1 is readily obtained well outside the metallic core (where λ ≃ 102 cm2s-1).
These assertions are quantified by a simple model of the equatorial zonal jet in which the flow is assumed uniform on cylinders concentric with the spin axis, and the viscous and magnetic torques on each cylinder are balanced. We solve this \"Taylor constraint\" simultaneously with the dynamo equation to obtain the velocity and magnetic field in the equatorial plane. With this model we reproduce the widely differing jet widths of Jupiter and Saturn (though not the flow at very high or low latitudes) using ν = 2500 cm2s-1, consistent with the requirement that viscous dissipation not exceed the specific luminosity. A model Uranian jet consistent with the limited Voyager data can also be constructed, with appropriately smaller ν, but only if one assumes a two-layer interior. We tentatively predict a wide Neptunian jet.
For Saturn (but not Jupiter or Uranus) the model has a large magnetic Reynolds number where Q = 1 and hence exhibits substantial axisymmetrization of the field in the equatorial plane. This effect may or may not persist at higher latitudes. The one-dimensional model presented is only a first step. Variation of the velocity and magnetic field parallel to the spin axis must be modeled in order to answer several important questions, including: 1) What is the behavior of flows at high latitudes, whose Taylor cylinders are interrupted by the region with Q ≳ 1? 2) To what extent is differential rotation in the envelope responsible for the spin-axisymmetry of Saturn's magnetic field?
PAPER III:
It is shown that the problem of two-dimensional photoclinometry (PC) -- the reconstruction of a surface z(x,y) from a brightness image B(x,y) -- may be formulated in a natural way in terms of finite elements. The resulting system of equations is underdetermined as a consequence of the lack of boundary conditions for z, but a unique solution may be chosen by minimizing a function S expressing the \"roughness\" of the surface. An efficient PC algorithm based on this formulation is presented, requiring ~ 10.66 (four-byte) memory locations and ~104 floating multiplications/additions per pixel, and incorporating: 1) Minimization of the roughness by the penalty method, which yields the smallest set of equations. 2) Iterative solution of the nonlinear equations by Newton's method. 3) Solution of the linearized equations by an inner iterative cycle of successive over-relaxation, which takes advantage of the extreme sparseness of the system. 4) Multigridding, in which the solutions to the smaller problems obtained by reducing the resolution are used recursively to greatly speed convergence at the higher resolutions, and 5) A rapid noniterative initial estimate of z obtained by exploiting the special symmetry of the equations obtained in the first linearization.
The algorithm is extensively demonstrated on 200 by 200 pixel synthetic \"images\" generated from digital topographic data for northern Utah over a range of phase angles. Rms error in the solution is ~ 22 m, out of ~ 660 m total relief. The error is dominated by \"stripes\" with the same azimuth as the light source, resulting from use of the roughness criterion in lieu of boundary conditions; the rms error along profiles parallel to the stripes is only ~ 2-8 m, depending on the phase angle. Satisfactory solutions are obtained even in the presence of quantization error, noise, and moderate blur in the image.
Applications of the PC algorithm to both remote sensing and photomicrography are sketched; a photoclinometric map of a low-relief Precambrian era fossil is presented as an example of the latter. Prospects for dealing with photometrically inhomogeneous surfaces, and an extension of the method to the analysis of side-looking radar data (\"radarclinometry\") are also discussed.
","language":"English","publisher":"California Institute of Technology","publisherLocation":"Pasadena, California","doi":"10.7907/T5PT-S948","usgsCitation":"Kirk, R.L., 1987, I. Thermal evolution of Ganymede and implications for surface features. II. Magnetohydrodynamic constraints on deep zonal flow in the giant planets. III. A fast finite-element algorithm for two-dimensional photoclinometry, 272 p., https://doi.org/10.7907/T5PT-S948.","productDescription":"272 p.","costCenters":[{"id":131,"text":"Astrogeology Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":360219,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"otherGeospatial":"Ganymede","publicComments":"Submitted for a Doctorate degree in Philosophy.","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5c122c5de4b034bf6a856a40","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kirk, Randolph L. 0000-0003-0842-9226 rkirk@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0842-9226","contributorId":2765,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kirk","given":"Randolph","email":"rkirk@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":131,"text":"Astrogeology Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":754064,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":28607,"text":"wri874142 - 1987 - Analysis of trends in water-quality data for water conservation area 3A, the Everglades, Florida","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-01-06T18:06:27.081865","indexId":"wri874142","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T20:50:00","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":342,"text":"Water-Resources Investigations Report","code":"WRI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"87-4142","title":"Analysis of trends in water-quality data for water conservation area 3A, the Everglades, Florida","docAbstract":"Rainfall and water-quality data bases from the South Florida Water Management District were used to evaluate water quality trends at 10 locations near or in Water Conservation Area 3A in The Everglades. The Seasonal Kendall test was applied to specific conductance, orthophosphate-phosphorus, nitrate-nitrogen, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and total nitrogen regression residuals for the period 1978-82. Residuals of orthophosphate and nitrate quadratic models, based on antecedent 7-day rainfall at inflow gate S-11B, were the only two constituent-structure pairs that showed apparent significant (p < 0.05) increases in constituent concentrations. Elimination of regression models with distinct residual patterns and data outlines resulted in 17 statistically significant station water quality combinations for trend analysis. No water quality trends were observed.
The 1979 Memorandum of Agreement outlining the water quality monitoring program between the Everglades National Park and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers stressed collection four times a year at three stations, and extensive coverage of water quality properties. Trend analysis and other rigorous statistical evaluation programs are better suited to data monitoring programs that include more frequent sampling and that are organized in a water quality data management system. Pronounced areal differences in water quality suggest that a water quality monitoring system for Shark River Slough in Everglades National Park include collection locations near the source of inflow to Water Conservation Area 3A. (Author 's abstract)
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/wri874142","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service and the South Florida Water Management District","usgsCitation":"Mattraw, H.C., Scheidt, D.J., and Federico, A.C., 1987, Analysis of trends in water-quality data for water conservation area 3A, the Everglades, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 87-4142, iv, 52 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wri874142.","productDescription":"iv, 52 p.","costCenters":[{"id":27821,"text":"Caribbean-Florida Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":57435,"rank":299,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1987/4142/wri874142.pdf","text":"Report","size":"1.27 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":123628,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1987/4142/coverthb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Florida","otherGeospatial":"Everglades National Park, Water Conservation Area 3A","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -80.82916259765625,\n 25.759082934951692\n ],\n [\n -80.69732666015625,\n 25.762793355586627\n ],\n [\n -80.45974731445312,\n 26.061717616104055\n ],\n [\n -80.44189453125,\n 26.0629512662096\n ],\n [\n -80.44464111328125,\n 26.11475283424124\n ],\n [\n -80.45974731445312,\n 26.149274465676672\n ],\n [\n -80.70968627929688,\n 26.152972606566966\n ],\n [\n -80.78521728515625,\n 26.159135914254378\n ],\n [\n -80.78109741210938,\n 25.98150251402977\n ],\n [\n -80.83740234375,\n 25.980268007469803\n ],\n [\n -80.83602905273436,\n 25.923466700919274\n ],\n [\n -80.8648681640625,\n 25.794945475649673\n ],\n [\n -80.82916259765625,\n 25.759082934951692\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","contact":"Caribbean-Florida Water Science Center
U.S. Geological Survey
3321 College Avenue
Davie, FL 33314
Caribbean-Florida Water Science Center
U.S. Geological Survey
3321 College Avenue
Davie, FL 33314
Bottomland hardwood wetlands are the natural cover type of many floodplain ecosystems in the southeastern United States. They are dynamic, productive systems that depend on intermittent flooding and moving water for maintenance of structure and function. Many of the diverse functions performed by bottomland hardwoods (e.g., flood control, sediment trapping, fish and wildlife habitat) are directly or indirectly valued by humans. Balanced decisions regarding bottomland hardwoods are often hindered by a limited ability to accurately specify the functions being performed by these systems and, furthermore, by an inability to evaluate these functions in economic terms. This report addresses these informational needs. It focuses on the bottomland hardwoods of eastern Texas and Oklahoma, serving as an introduction and entry to the literature. It is not intended to serve as a substitute for reference to the original literature.
\nThe first section of the report is a review of the major functions of bottomland hardwoods, grouped under the headings of hydrology, water quality, productivity, detritus, nutrients, and habitat. Although the hydrology of these areas is diverse and complex, especially with respect to groundwater, water storage at high flows can clearly function to attenuate peak flows, with possible reductions in downstream flooding damage. Water moving through a bottomland hardwood system carries with it various organic and inorganic constituents, including sediment, organic matter, nutrients, and pollutants. When waterborne materials are introduced to bottomland hardwoods (from river flooding or upland runoff), they may be retained, transformed, or transported. As a result, water quality may be significantly altered and improved. The fluctuating and flowing water regime of bottomland hardwoods is associated with generally high net primary productivity and rapid fluxes of organic matter and nutrients. These, in turn, support secondary productivity in the bottomland hardwoods and downstream through detrital export. A large number of studies detail the extensive utilization of bottomland hardwoods by animals. Several basic habitat components contribute to this support function, including:
\n1. Fluctuating water levels and permanent bodies of water,
\n2. Hard mast (e.g., acorns),
\n3. Dens and cavities,
\n4. High soil fertility,
\n5. Diversity of food and cover,
\n6. Predominance of woody plant communities,
\n7. Close proximity of diverse structural features, and
\n8. Linear features providing movement corridors.
\nThe second section of the report focuses on the bottomlands of eastern Texas and Oklahoma, including topics such as climate, soils, water resources, historical perspective, vegetation, and fauna. Considerable attention is given to structural characteristics in this section, in order to provide contrasts with bottomland hardwood ecosystems in other areas. In general, the bottomland hardwoods of eastern Texas and Oklahoma are very similar to those elsewhere in the southeastern United States. Differences include the occurrence and relative importance of some community types and plant species and the greater importance of reservoir construction as a source of bottomland hardwoods loss in eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Again, information on faunal utilization is extensive relative to the information available concerning other functions.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Biological Report","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","usgsCitation":"Wilkinson, D., Schneller-McDonald, K., Olson, R., and Auble, G., 1987, Synopsis of wetland functions and values: bottomland hardwoods with special emphasis on eastern Texas and Oklahoma, v. 87, no. 12, 132 p.","productDescription":"132 p.","numberOfPages":"132","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":292918,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Oklahoma;Texas","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -103.22,29.75 ], [ -103.22,37.01 ], [ -93.51,37.01 ], [ -93.51,29.75 ], [ -103.22,29.75 ] ] ] } } ] }","volume":"87","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53f85992e4b03f038c5c1932","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wilkinson, D.L.","contributorId":98235,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wilkinson","given":"D.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499248,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schneller-McDonald, K.","contributorId":18279,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schneller-McDonald","given":"K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499246,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Olson, R.W.","contributorId":12382,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Olson","given":"R.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499245,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Auble, G.T.","contributorId":19505,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Auble","given":"G.T.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499247,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70200784,"text":"70200784 - 1987 - Snow and ice studies by thematic mapper and multispectral scanner Landsat images","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-10-31T15:47:08","indexId":"70200784","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T15:46:25","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":794,"text":"Annals of Glaciology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Snow and ice studies by thematic mapper and multispectral scanner Landsat images","docAbstract":"Digitally enhanced Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images of Antarctica reveal snow and ice features to a detail never seen before in satellite images. The six TM reflective spectral bands have a nominal spatial resolution of 30 m, compared to 80 m for the Multispectral Scanner (MSS). TM bands 2–4 are similar to the MSS bands. TM infra-red bands 5 and 7 discriminate better between clouds and snow than MSS or the lower TM bands. They also reveal snow features related to grain-size and possibly other snow properties. These features are not observed in the visible wavelengths. Large features such as flow lines show best in the MSS and lower TM bands. Their visibility is due to photometric effects on slopes. TM thermal band 6 has a resolution of 120 m. It shows ground radiation temperatures and may serve to detect liquid water and to discriminate between features having similar reflectivities in the other bands, such as blue ice.
","language":"English","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","doi":"10.3189/S0260305500000483","usgsCitation":"Orheim, O., and Lucchitta, B.K., 1987, Snow and ice studies by thematic mapper and multispectral scanner Landsat images: Annals of Glaciology, v. 9, p. 109-118, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500000483.","productDescription":"10 p.","startPage":"109","endPage":"118","costCenters":[{"id":131,"text":"Astrogeology Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":480083,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500000483","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":359052,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"9","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-01-20","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5c113517e4b034bf6a8278a8","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Orheim, Olav","contributorId":210340,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Orheim","given":"Olav","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":750502,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Lucchitta, Baerbel K. blucchitta@usgs.gov","contributorId":3649,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lucchitta","given":"Baerbel","email":"blucchitta@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":750503,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":32550,"text":"32550 - 1987 - Presidential elections, 1972-1984; Presidential elections, 1789-1968","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-08-01T14:47:57","indexId":"32550","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T14:37:00","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":6,"text":"USGS Unnumbered Series"},"title":"Presidential elections, 1972-1984; Presidential elections, 1789-1968","docAbstract":"No abstract available.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/32550","usgsCitation":"Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, 1987, Presidential elections, 1972-1984; Presidential elections, 1789-1968, 4 maps, https://doi.org/10.3133/32550.","productDescription":"4 maps","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":291532,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53dca9cce4b0761578637777","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey","contributorId":128075,"corporation":true,"usgs":false,"organization":"Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey","id":529415,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70201404,"text":"70201404 - 1987 - Thermal evolution of a differentiated Ganymede and implications for surface features","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-12-12T13:59:53","indexId":"70201404","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T13:59:21","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1963,"text":"Icarus","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Thermal evolution of a differentiated Ganymede and implications for surface features","docAbstract":"Thermal evolution models are presented for Ganymede, assuming a mostly differentiated initial state of a water ocean overlying a rock layer. The only heat sources are assumed to be primordial heat (provided by accretion) and the long-lived radiogenic heat sources in the rock component. As Ganymede cools, the ocean thins, and two ice layers develop, one above composed of ice I, and the other below composed of high-pressure polymorphs of ice. Subsolidus convection proceeds separately in each ice layer, its transport of heat calculated using a simple parameterized convection scheme and the most recent data on ice rheology. The model requires that the average entropy of the deep ice layer exceeds that of the ice I layer. If the residual ocean separating these layers becomes thin enough, then a Rayleigh-Taylor-like (“diapiric”) instability may ensue, driven by the greater entropy of the deeper ice and merging the two ice mantles into a single convective layer. This instability is not predicted by linear analysis but occurs for plausible finite amplitude perturbations associated with large Rayleigh number convection. The resulting warm ice diapirs may lead to a dramatic “heat pulse” at the surface and to fracturing of the lithosphere, and may be directly or indirectly responsible for resurfacing and grooved terrain formation on Ganymede. The timing of this event depends rather sensitively on poorly known rheological parameters, but could be consistent with chronologies deduced from estimated cratering rates. Irrespective of the occurrence or importance of the heat pulse, we find that lithospheric fracturing requires rapid stress loading (on a time scale ⪅104 years). Such a time scale can be realized by warm ice diapirism, but not directly by gradual global expansion. In the absence of any quantitative and self-consistent model for the resurfacing of Ganymede by liquid water, we favor resurfacing by warm ice flows, which we demonstrate to be physically possible, a plausible consequence of our models, compatible with existing observations, and a hypothesis testable by Galileo. We discuss core formation as an alternative driver for resurfacing, and conclude that it is less attractive. We also consider anew the puzzle of why Callisto differs so greatly from Ganymede, offering several possible explanations. The models presented do not provide a compelling explanation for all aspects of Ganymedean geological evolution, since we have identified several potential problems, most notably the apparently extended period of grooved terrain formation (several hundred million years), which is difficult to reconcile with the heat pulse phenomenon.
","language":"English","publisher":"Academic Press","doi":"10.1016/0019-1035(87)90009-1","usgsCitation":"Kirk, R.L., and Stevenson, D.J., 1987, Thermal evolution of a differentiated Ganymede and implications for surface features: Icarus, v. 69, no. 1, p. 91-134, https://doi.org/10.1016/0019-1035(87)90009-1.","productDescription":"44 p.","startPage":"91","endPage":"134","costCenters":[{"id":131,"text":"Astrogeology Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":360216,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"otherGeospatial":"Ganymede","volume":"69","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5c122c5de4b034bf6a856a46","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kirk, Randolph L. 0000-0003-0842-9226 rkirk@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0842-9226","contributorId":2765,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kirk","given":"Randolph","email":"rkirk@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":131,"text":"Astrogeology Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":754053,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Stevenson, David J.","contributorId":211426,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Stevenson","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":754054,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70121399,"text":"70121399 - 1987 - Refuge management analyses: water management alternatives at Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-08-21T13:31:33","indexId":"70121399","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T13:30:13","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"seriesNumber":"NEC-87/13","title":"Refuge management analyses: water management alternatives at Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge","docAbstract":"No abstract available.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Ecology Center","publisherLocation":"Fort Collins, CO","usgsCitation":"Roelle, J.E., Hamilton, D.B., Auble, G.T., and Asherin, D., 1987, Refuge management analyses: water management alternatives at Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge, 35 p.","productDescription":"35 p.","numberOfPages":"35","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":292786,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Illinois","city":"Havana","otherGeospatial":"Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -90.050143,40.348287 ], [ -90.050143,40.436011 ], [ -89.906316,40.436011 ], [ -89.906316,40.348287 ], [ -90.050143,40.348287 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53f707dfe4b05ec1f2431c0a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Roelle, J. E.","contributorId":91066,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Roelle","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499043,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hamilton, D. B.","contributorId":79553,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hamilton","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499042,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Auble, Gregor T. 0000-0002-0843-2751 aubleg@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0843-2751","contributorId":2187,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Auble","given":"Gregor","email":"aubleg@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[{"id":291,"text":"Fort Collins Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":499040,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Asherin, D.A.","contributorId":21870,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Asherin","given":"D.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499041,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70121548,"text":"70121548 - 1987 - Instream water use in the United States: water laws and methods for determining flow requirements","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-08-22T12:54:53","indexId":"70121548","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T12:48:30","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"seriesNumber":"Water-Supply Paper 2350","title":"Instream water use in the United States: water laws and methods for determining flow requirements","docAbstract":"Water use generally is divided into two primary classes - offstream use and instream use. In offstream use, sometimes called out-of-stream or diversionary use, water is withdrawn (diverted) from a stream or aquifer and transported to the place of use. Examples are irrigated agriculture, municipal water supply, and industrial use. Each of these offstream uses, which decreases the volume of water available downstream from the point of diversion, is discussed in previous articles in this volume. Instream use, which generally does not diminish the flow downstream from its point of use, and its importance are described in this article.
\nOne of the earliest instream uses of water in the United States was to turn the water wheels that powered much of the Nation's industry in the 18th and 19th centuries. Although a small volume of water might have been diverted to a mill near streamside, that water usually was returned to the stream near the point of diversion and, thus, the flow was not diminished downstream from the mill. Over time, the generation of hydroelectric power replaced mill wheels as a means of converting water flow into energy. Since the 1920's, the generation of hydroelectric power increasingly has become a major instream use of water. By 1985, more than 3 billion acre-feet of water (3,050,000 million gallons per day) was used annually for hydropower generation (Solley and others, 1988, p. 45)-enough water to cover the State of Colorado to a depth of 51 feet.
\nNavigation is another instream use with a long history. The Lewis and Clark expedition journals and many of Mark Twain's novels illustrate the extent to which the Nation originally depended on adequate streamfiows for basic transportation. Navigation in the 1980's is still considered to be an instream use; however, it often is based upon a stream system that has been modified greatly through channelization, diking, and construction of dams and locks. The present (1987) inland water navigation system in the conterminous United States consists of about 12,000 miles of maintained waterways, over which about 500 million tons of cargo is carried each year (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1988, p. 16).
\nAlthough not so widely practiced in recent years, streams have been used to dispose of raw waste products from homes, communities, and factories. This use has been discouraged by law and public policy because of public health concerns and the damage it causes to the environment.
\nBeginning in the mid-1960's, other instream uses gained new prominence in the water-resources arena-the assertion of a legal right to a free-flowing stream for biological, recreational, and esthetic purposes. These uses themselves, however, are not new. Riverine habitat always has produced fish, and the beauty of flowing water always has evoked a strong sense of esthetic appreciation. What is new is the emerging legitimacy and awareness of these noneconomic uses under State and Federal laws and regulations. In the past, environmental uses of flowing water were ignored, for the most part, under a long-standing legal tradition that favored offstream uses and certain instream uses that had a strong economic basis.
\nThe history of instream-flow policy debate really concerns those recently recognized types of interim uses. Although the more transitional water uses have been protected by law, the recognition of other in stream uses has resulted in substantial changes in State water laws. Although methods for determining the volume of water needed for most traditional water uses are relatively straight-forward and well-established, methods for determining water requirements for the in stream uses have been developed only recently and are continuing to evolve.
\nWater laws that have favored the more traditional water uses, the inherent nature of conflict between instream and offstream water uses, and the special kinds of technological and philosophical problems posed by the \"newer\" types of instream uses are described below. Water laws that have been passed to accommodate the more recently recognized instream uses are summarized.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"National Water Summary 1987","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","usgsCitation":"Lamb, B., and Doerksen, H.R., 1987, Instream water use in the United States: water laws and methods for determining flow requirements, 8 p.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"109","endPage":"116","numberOfPages":"8","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":292875,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53f85963e4b03f038c5c1820","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lamb, Berton L.","contributorId":24009,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lamb","given":"Berton L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499172,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Doerksen, Harvey R.","contributorId":25476,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Doerksen","given":"Harvey","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":499173,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70121534,"text":"70121534 - 1987 - Discussion of \"Satisfying instream flow needs under western water rights\" by J. M. Bagley, D. T. Larson, and L. Kapaloski","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-05-23T14:40:24.706664","indexId":"70121534","displayToPublicDate":"1987-01-01T12:18:38","publicationYear":"1987","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2501,"text":"Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Discussion of \"Satisfying instream flow needs under western water rights\" by J. M. Bagley, D. T. Larson, and L. Kapaloski","docAbstract":"No abstract available.","language":"English","publisher":"American Society of Civil Engineers","publisherLocation":"New York, NY","doi":"10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(1987)113:4(583)","usgsCitation":"Milhous, R.T., 1987, Discussion of \"Satisfying instream flow needs under western water rights\" by J. M. Bagley, D. T. Larson, and L. 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