The extraordinary number, size, and unspoiled beauty of the geysers and hot springs of Yellowstone National Park (the Park) make them a national treasure. The hydrology of these special features and their relation to cold waters of the Yellowstone area are poorly known. In the absence of deep drill holes, such information is available only indirectly from isotope studies. The δD-δ18O values of precipitation and cold surface-water and ground-water samples are close to the global meteoric water line (Craig, 1961). δD values of monthly samples of rain and snow collected from 1978 to 1981 at two stations in the Park show strong seasonal variations, with average values for winter months close to those for cold waters near the collection sites. δD values of more than 300 samples from cold springs, cold streams, and rivers collected during the fall from 1967 to 1992 show consistent north-south and east-west patterns throughout and outside of the Park, although values at a given site vary by as much as 8 ‰ from year to year. These data, along with hot-spring data (Truesdell and others, 1977; Pearson and Truesdell, 1978), show that ascending Yellowstone thermal waters are modified isotopically and chemically by a variety of boiling and mixing processes in shallow reservoirs. Near geyser basins, shallow recharge waters from nearby rhyolite plateaus dilute the ascending deep thermal waters, particularly at basin margins, and mix and boil in reservoirs that commonly are interconnected. Deep recharge appears to derive from a major deep thermal-reservoir fluid that supplies steam and hot water to all geyser basins on the west side of the Park and perhaps in the entire Yellowstone caldera. This water (T ≥350°C; δD = –149±1 ‰) is isotopically lighter than all but the farthest north, highest altitude cold springs and streams and a sinter-producing warm spring (δD = –153 ‰) north of the Park. Derivation of this deep fluid solely from present-day recharge is problematical. The designation of source areas depends on assumptions about the age of the deep water, which in turn depend on assumptions about the nature of the deep thermal system. Modeling, based on published chloride-flux studies of thermal waters, suggests that for a 0.5- to 4-km-deep reservoir the residence time of most of the thermal water could be less than 1,900 years, for a piston-flow model, to more than 10,000 years, for a well-mixed model. For the piston-flow model, the deep system quickly reaches the isotopic composition of the recharge in response to climate change. For this model, stable-isotope data and geologic considerations suggest that the most likely area of recharge for the deep thermal water is in the northwestern part of the Park, in the Gallatin Range, where major north-south faults connect with the caldera. This possible recharge area for the deep thermal water is at least 20 km, and possibly as much as 70 km, from outflow in the thermal areas, indicating the presence of a hydrothermal system as large as those postulated to have operated around large, ancient igneous intrusions. For this model, the volume of isotopically light water infiltrating in the Gallatin Range during our sampling period is too small to balance the present outflow of deep water. This shortfall suggests that some recharge possibly occurred during a cooler time characterized by greater winter precipitation, such as during the Little Ice Age in the 15th century. However, this scenario requires exceptionally fast flow rates of recharge into the deep system. For the well-mixed model, the composition of the deep reservoir changes slowly in response to climate change, and a significant component of the deep thermal water could have recharged during Pleistocene glaciation. The latter interpretation is consistent with the recent discovery of warm waters in wells and springs in southern Idaho that have δD values 10–20 ‰ lower than the winter snow for their present-day high-level recharge. These waters have been interpreted to be Pleistocene in age (Smith and others, 2002). The well-mixed model permits a significant component of recharge water for the deep system to have δD values less negative than –150 ‰ and consequently for the deep system recharge to be closer to the caldera at a number of possible localities in the Park.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Integrated geoscience studies in the Greater Yellowstone Area—Volcanic, tectonic, and hydrothermal processes in the Yellowstone geoecosystem (Professional Paper 1717)","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"United States Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1717H","usgsCitation":"Rye, R.O., and Truesdell, A.H., 2007, The question of recharge to the deep thermal reservoir underlying the geysers and hot springs of Yellowstone National Park: Chapter H in Integrated geoscience studies in Integrated geoscience studies in the Greater Yellowstone Area—Volcanic, tectonic, and hydrothermal processes in the Yellowstone geoecosystem: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1717, 32 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1717H.","productDescription":"32 p.","startPage":"239","endPage":"270","numberOfPages":"32","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":322224,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":322219,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1717/downloads/pdf/p1717H.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Idaho, Montana, Wyoming","otherGeospatial":"Located mostly in northwestern Wyoming but extends into Montana and Idaho","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -111.6485595703125,\n 43.35713822211053\n ],\n [\n -111.6485595703125,\n 45.521743896993634\n ],\n [\n -108.7811279296875,\n 45.521743896993634\n ],\n [\n -108.7811279296875,\n 43.35713822211053\n ],\n [\n -111.6485595703125,\n 43.35713822211053\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57569eb7e4b023b96ec28482","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Morgan, Lisa A.","contributorId":66300,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Morgan","given":"Lisa","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":632569,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1}],"authors":[{"text":"Rye, Robert O. rrye@usgs.gov","contributorId":1486,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rye","given":"Robert","email":"rrye@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"O.","affiliations":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":632567,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Truesdell, Alfred Hemingway","contributorId":106137,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Truesdell","given":"Alfred","email":"","middleInitial":"Hemingway","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":632568,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70171725,"text":"70171725 - 2007 - Borehole observations of continuous strain and fluid pressure: Chapter 9","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-06-06T12:11:01","indexId":"70171725","displayToPublicDate":"2016-02-09T09:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"chapter":"9","title":"Borehole observations of continuous strain and fluid pressure: Chapter 9","docAbstract":"Strain is expansion, contraction, or distortion of the volcanic edifice and surrounding crust. As a result of magma movement, volcanoes may undergo enormous strain prior to and during eruption. Global Positioning System (GPS) observations can in principle be used to determine strain by taking the difference between two nearby observations and dividing by the distance between them. Two GPS stations 1 km apart, each providing displacement information accurate to the nearest millimeter, could detect strain as small as 2 mm km-1, or 2 × 10-6. It is possible, however, to measure strains at least three orders of magnitude smaller using borehole strainmeters. In fact, it is even possible to measure strains as small as 10-8 using observations of groundwater levels in boreholes.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Volcano Deformation","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Springer Link","publisherLocation":"Berlin, Germany","isbn":"9783642517631","usgsCitation":"Roeloffs, E.A., and Linde, A.T., 2007, Borehole observations of continuous strain and fluid pressure: Chapter 9, chap. 9 of Volcano Deformation, p. 305-322.","productDescription":"18 p.","startPage":"305","endPage":"322","numberOfPages":"18","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":322194,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57569eaee4b023b96ec2840b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Roeloffs, Evelyn A. 0000-0002-4761-0469 evelynr@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4761-0469","contributorId":2680,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Roeloffs","given":"Evelyn","email":"evelynr@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":632209,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Linde, A. T.","contributorId":21700,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Linde","given":"A.","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":632210,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70170206,"text":"70170206 - 2007 - Economic Growth and Landscape Change","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-04-18T09:27:16","indexId":"70170206","displayToPublicDate":"2016-02-09T09:00:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Economic Growth and Landscape Change","docAbstract":"Prato and Fagre offer the first systematic, multi-disciplinary assessment of the challenges involved in managing the Crown of the Continent Ecosystem (CCE), an area of the Rocky Mountains that includes northwestern Montana, southwestern Alberta, and southeastern British Columbia. The spectacular landscapes, extensive recreational options, and broad employment opportunities of the CCE have made it one of the fastest growing regions in the United States and Canada, and have lead to a shift in its economic base from extractive resource industries to service-oriented recreation and tourism industries. In the process, however, the amenities and attributes that draw people to this “New West” are under threat. Pastoral scenes are disappearing as agricultural lands and other open spaces are converted to residential uses, biodiversity is endangered by the fragmentation of fish and wildlife habitats, and many areas are experiencing a decline in air and water quality.
\nSustaining Rocky Mountain Landscapes provides a scientific basis for communities to develop policies for managing the growth and economic transformation of the CCE without sacrificing the quality of life and environment for which the land is renowned. This forthcoming edited volume focuses on five aspects of sustaining mountain landscapes in the CCE and similar regions in the Rocky Mountains. The five aspects are: 1) how social, economic, demographic and environmental forces are transforming ecosystem structure and function, 2) trends in use and conditions for human and environmental resources, 3) activating science, policy and education to enhance sustainable landscape management, 4) challenges to sustainable management of public and private lands, and 5) future prospects for achieving sustainable landscapes.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Sustaining rocky mountain landscapes: Science, policy and management for the crown of the continent ecosystem","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Routledge","isbn":"9781136523397","usgsCitation":"Prato, T., and Fagre, D., 2007, Economic Growth and Landscape Change, chap. of Sustaining rocky mountain landscapes: Science, policy and management for the crown of the continent ecosystem, p. 55-66.","productDescription":"11 p.","startPage":"55","endPage":"66","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":319969,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":319968,"rank":1,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.routledge.com/products/9781933115467"}],"country":"United States","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"570ccab0e4b0ef3b7ca1470e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Prato, Tony","contributorId":97394,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Prato","given":"Tony","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626463,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Fagre, Dan","contributorId":22733,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fagre","given":"Dan","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626464,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70170201,"text":"70170201 - 2007 - Alpine treeline of western North America: Linking organism-to-landscape dynamics","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-09T17:23:57.151264","indexId":"70170201","displayToPublicDate":"2016-02-09T09:00:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3059,"text":"Physical Geography","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Alpine treeline of western North America: Linking organism-to-landscape dynamics","docAbstract":"Although the ecological dynamics of the alpine treeline ecotone are influenced by climate, it is an imperfect indicator of climate change. Mechanistic processes that shape the ecotone—seed rain, seed germination, seedling establishment and subsequent tree growth form, or, conversely tree dieback—depend on microsite patterns. Growth forms affect wind and snow, and so develop positive and negative feedback loops that create these microsites. As a result, complex landscape patterns are generated at multiple spatial scales. Although these mechanistic processes are fundamentally the same for all forest-tundra ecotones across western North America, factors such as prior climate, underlying geology and geomorphology, and genetic constraints of dominant tree species lead to geographic differences in the responses of particular ecotones to climate change.
","language":"English","publisher":"Taylor & Francis Online","doi":"10.2747/0272-3646.28.5.378","usgsCitation":"Malanson, G.P., Butler, D.R., Fagre, D.B., Walsh, S.J., Tomback, D.F., Daniels, L.D., Resler, L.M., Smith, W.K., Weiss, D.J., Peterson, D.L., Bunn, A.G., Hiemstra, C.A., Liptzin, D., Bourgeron, P.S., Shen, Z., and Millar, C.I., 2007, Alpine treeline of western North America: Linking organism-to-landscape dynamics: Physical Geography, v. 28, no. 5, p. 378-396, https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3646.28.5.378.","productDescription":"19 p.","startPage":"378","endPage":"396","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science 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Daniel","contributorId":168551,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Liptzin","given":"Daniel","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626433,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":13},{"text":"Bourgeron, Patrick S.","contributorId":168552,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Bourgeron","given":"Patrick","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626434,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":14},{"text":"Shen, Zehao","contributorId":168553,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Shen","given":"Zehao","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626435,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":15},{"text":"Millar, Constance I.","contributorId":168554,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Millar","given":"Constance","email":"","middleInitial":"I.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626436,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":16}]}} ,{"id":70171673,"text":"70171673 - 2007 - Crisis GIS--Preparing for and responding to volcanic eruptions in the United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-06-06T11:00:41","indexId":"70171673","displayToPublicDate":"2016-02-08T06:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"chapter":"1","subchapterNumber":"1","title":"Crisis GIS--Preparing for and responding to volcanic eruptions in the United States","language":"English","publisher":"ESRI Press","publisherLocation":"Redlands, California","isbn":"9781589480476","usgsCitation":"Ramsey, D., Robinson, J., Schilling, S.P., Schaefer, J., and Trusdell, F., 2007, Crisis GIS--Preparing for and responding to volcanic eruptions in the United States, p. 3-8.","productDescription":"6 p.","startPage":"3","endPage":"8","numberOfPages":"6","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards 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P.","contributorId":119540,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schilling","given":"S.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":632051,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Schaefer, J.R.","contributorId":48785,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schaefer","given":"J.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":632052,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Trusdell, Frank A. 0000-0002-0681-0528 trusdell@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0681-0528","contributorId":754,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Trusdell","given":"Frank A.","email":"trusdell@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":632053,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":70171031,"text":"70171031 - 2007 - Modeling the dynamic response of a crater glacier to lava-dome emplacement: Mount St Helens, Washington, USA","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-05-17T13:13:07","indexId":"70171031","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-29T05:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":794,"text":"Annals of Glaciology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Modeling the dynamic response of a crater glacier to lava-dome emplacement: Mount St Helens, Washington, USA","docAbstract":"The Yellowstone-Snake River Plain tectonomagmatic province resulted from Late Tertiary volcanism in western North America, producing three large, caldera-forming eruptions at the Yellowstone Plateau in the last 2 Myr. To understand the kinematics and geodynamics of this volcanic system, the University of Utah conducted seven GPS campaigns at 140 sites between 1987 and 2003 and installed a network of 15 permanent stations. GPS deployments focused on the Yellowstone caldera, the Hebgen Lake and Teton faults, and the eastern Snake River Plain. The GPS data revealed periods of uplift and subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera at rates up to 15 mm/yr. From 1987 to 1995, the caldera subsided and contracted, implying volume loss. From 1995 to 2000, deformation shifted to inflation and extension northwest of the caldera. From 2000 to 2003, uplift continued to the northwest while caldera subsidence was renewed. The GPS observations also revealed extension across the Hebgen Lake fault and fault-normal contraction across the Teton fault. Deformation rates of the Yellowstone caldera and Hebgen Lake fault were converted to equivalent total moment rates, which exceeded historic seismic moment release and late Quaternary fault slip-derived moment release by an order of magnitude. The Yellowstone caldera deformation trends were superimposed on regional southwest extension of the Yellowstone Plateau at up to 4.3 ± 0.2 mm/yr, while the eastern Snake River Plain moved southwest as a slower rate at 2.1 ± 0.2 mm/yr. This southwest extension of the Yellowstone-Snake River Plain system merged into east-west extension of the Basin-Range province. Copyright 2007 by the American Geophysical Union.
\nThis paper presents a user-friendly graphically based numerical model of one-dimensional steady state homogeneous volcanic plumes that calculates and plots profiles of upward velocity, plume density, radius, temperature, and other parameters as a function of height. The model considers effects of water condensation and ice formation on plume dynamics as well as the effect of water added to the plume at the vent. Atmospheric conditions may be specified through input parameters of constant lapse rates and relative humidity, or by loading profiles of actual atmospheric soundings. To illustrate the utility of the model, we compare calculations with field-based estimates of plume height (∼9 km) and eruption rate (>∼4 × 105 kg/s) during a brief tephra eruption at Mount St. Helens on 8 March 2005. Results show that the atmospheric conditions on that day boosted plume height by 1–3 km over that in a standard dry atmosphere. Although the eruption temperature was unknown, model calculations most closely match the observations for a temperature that is below magmatic but above 100°C.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.1029/2006GC001455","issn":"1525-2027","usgsCitation":"Mastin, L.G., 2007, A user-friendly one-dimensional model for wet volcanic plumes: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 8, no. 3, 24 p., https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GC001455.","productDescription":"24 p.","numberOfPages":"24","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":476828,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2006gc001455","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":321298,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"8","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2007-03-24","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"574d6435e4b07e28b6683450","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mastin, Larry G. 0000-0002-4795-1992 lgmastin@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4795-1992","contributorId":555,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mastin","given":"Larry","email":"lgmastin@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":629547,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70170377,"text":"70170377 - 2007 - Explosive eruptive record in the Katmai region, Alaska Peninsula: An overview","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-09-08T11:15:57.959014","indexId":"70170377","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-28T01:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1109,"text":"Bulletin of Volcanology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Explosive eruptive record in the Katmai region, Alaska Peninsula: An overview","docAbstract":"At least 15 explosive eruptions from the Katmai cluster of volcanoes and another nine from other volcanoes on the Alaska Peninsula are preserved as tephra layers in syn- and post-glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) loess and soil sections in Katmai National Park, AK. About 400 tephra samples from 150 measured sections have been collected between Kaguyak volcano and Mount Martin and from Shelikof Strait to Bristol Bay (∼8,500 km2). Five tephra layers are distinctive and widespread enough to be used as marker horizons in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes area, and 140 radiocarbon dates on enclosing soils have established a time framework for entire soil–tephra sections to 10 ka; the white rhyolitic ash from the 1912 plinian eruption of Novarupta caps almost all sections. Stratigraphy, distribution and tephra characteristics have been combined with microprobe analyses of glass and Fe–Ti oxide minerals to correlate ash layers with their source vents. Microprobe analyses (typically 20–50 analyses per glass or oxide sample) commonly show oxide compositions to be more definitive than glass in distinguishing one tephra from another; oxides from the Kaguyak caldera-forming event are so compositionally coherent that they have been used as internal standards throughout this study. Other than the Novarupta and Trident eruptions of the last century, the youngest locally derived tephra is associated with emplacement of the Snowy Mountain summit dome (<250 14C years B.P.). East Mageik has erupted most frequently during Holocene time with seven explosive events (9,400 to 2,400 14C years B.P.) preserved as tephra layers. Mount Martin erupted entirely during the Holocene, with lava coulees (>6 ka), two tephras (∼3,700 and ∼2,700 14C years B.P.), and a summit scoria cone with a crater still steaming today. Mount Katmai has three times produced very large explosive plinian to sub-plinian events (in 1912; 12–16 ka; and 23 ka) and many smaller pyroclastic deposits show that explosive activity has long been common there. Mount Griggs, fumarolically active and moderately productive during postglacial time (mostly andesitic lavas), has three nested summit craters, two of which are on top of a Holocene central cone. Only one ash has been found that is (tentatively) correlated with the most recent eruptive activity on Griggs (<3,460 14C years B.P.). Eruptions from other volcanoes NE and SW beyond the Katmai cluster represented in this area include: (1) coignimbrite ash from Kaguyak’s caldera-forming event (5,800 14C years B.P.); (2) the climactic event from Fisher caldera (∼9,100 14C years B.P.—tentatively correlated); (3) at least three eruptions most likely from Mount Peulik (∼700, ∼7,700 and ∼8,500 14C years B.P.); and (4) a phreatic fallout most likely from the Gas Rocks (∼2,300 14C years B.P.). Most of the radiocarbon dating has been done on loess, soil and peat enclosing this tephra. Ash correlations supported by stratigraphy and microprobe data are combined with radiocarbon dating to show that variably organics-bearing substrates can provide reliable limiting ages for ash layers, especially when data for several sites is available.
The upward intrusion of magma from deeper to shallower levels beneath volcanoes obviously plays an important role in their surface deformation. This chapter will examine less obvious roles that hydrothermal processes might play in volcanic deformation. Emphasis will be placed on the effect that the transition from brittle to plastic behavior of rocks is likely to have on magma degassing and hydrothermal processes, and on the likely chemical variations in brine and gas compositions that occur as a result of movement of aqueous-rich fluids from plastic into brittle rock at different depths. To a great extent, the model of hydrothermal processes in sub-volcanic systems that is presented here is inferential, based in part on information obtained from deep drilling for geothermal resources, and in part on the study of ore deposits that are thought to have formed in volcanic and shallow plutonic environments.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Volcano deformation--Geodetic monitoring techniques","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Verlag","publisherLocation":"Berlin","doi":"10.1007/978-3-540-49302-0_10","usgsCitation":"Fournier, R., 2007, Hydrothermal systems and volcano geochemistry, chap. 10 of Volcano deformation--Geodetic monitoring techniques, p. 323-341, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-49302-0_10.","productDescription":"9 p.","startPage":"323","endPage":"341","numberOfPages":"9","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320187,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"571756dae4b0ef3b7caa61ec","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Fournier, R.O.","contributorId":73584,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fournier","given":"R.O.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627055,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70170372,"text":"70170372 - 2007 - Magmatic gas efflux at the Ukinrek Maars, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-06-29T11:14:09.398906","indexId":"70170372","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-27T00:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"chapter":"12","title":"Magmatic gas efflux at the Ukinrek Maars, Alaska","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Water-rock interaction: proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction, WRI-12, Kunming, China, 31 July-5 August 2007","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"12th International Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction, WRI-12","conferenceDate":"July 31 - August 5, 2007","conferenceLocation":"Kunming, China","language":"English","publisher":"Taylor & Francis","publisherLocation":"London","doi":"10.1201/NOE0415451369.ch12","usgsCitation":"Bergfeld, D., Evans, W., Hunt, A., and McGimsey, R.G., 2007, Magmatic gas efflux at the Ukinrek Maars, Alaska, in Water-rock interaction: proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction, WRI-12, Kunming, China, 31 July-5 August 2007, v. 1, Kunming, China, July 31 - August 5, 2007, p. 65-69, https://doi.org/10.1201/NOE0415451369.ch12.","productDescription":"5 p.","startPage":"65","endPage":"69","numberOfPages":"5","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320176,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2010-03-16","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"571756dee4b0ef3b7caa6260","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Bullen, T.D.","contributorId":79911,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bullen","given":"T.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627013,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Wang, Y.","contributorId":64213,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wang","given":"Y.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627014,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2}],"authors":[{"text":"Bergfeld, Deborah 0000-0003-4570-7627 dbergfel@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4570-7627","contributorId":152531,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bergfeld","given":"Deborah","email":"dbergfel@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":627009,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Evans, W. C.","contributorId":115466,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Evans","given":"W. C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627010,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Hunt, A.G.","contributorId":68691,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hunt","given":"A.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627011,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"McGimsey, R. G.","contributorId":93921,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McGimsey","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627012,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70170807,"text":"70170807 - 2007 - Late pleistocene and holocene caldera-forming eruptions of Okmok Caldera, Aleutian Islands, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-02-03T22:42:34.794784","indexId":"70170807","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-26T06:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Late pleistocene and holocene caldera-forming eruptions of Okmok Caldera, Aleutian Islands, Alaska","docAbstract":"This chapter contains sections titled:
Introduction
Geologic setting
Field and Analytical Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
Forward Looking Infrared Radiometer (FLIR) cameras offer a unique view of explosive volcanism by providing an image of calibrated temperatures. In this study, 344 eruptive events at Stromboli volcano, Italy, were imaged in 2001–2004 with a FLIR camera operating at up to 30 Hz. The FLIR was effective at revealing both ash plumes and coarse ballistic scoria, and a wide range of eruption styles was recorded. Eruptions at Stromboli can generally be classified into two groups: Type 1 eruptions, which are dominated by coarse ballistic particles, and Type 2 eruptions, which consist of an optically-thick, ash-rich plume, with (Type 2a) or without (Type 2b) large numbers of ballistic particles. Furthermore, Type 2a plumes exhibited gas thrust velocities (>15 m s−1 ) while Type 2b plumes were limited to buoyant velocities (<15 m s−1 ) above the crater rim. A given vent would normally maintain a particular gross eruption style (Type 1 vs. 2) for days to weeks, indicating stability of the uppermost conduit on these timescales. Velocities at the crater rim had a range of 3–101 m s−1 , with an overall mean value of 24 m s−1. Mean crater rim velocities by eruption style were: Type 1= 34 m s−1 , Type 2a=31 m s−1 , Type 2b=7 m s−1 . Eruption durations had a range of 6–41 s, with a mean of 15 s, similar among eruption styles. The ash in Type 2 eruptions originates from either backfilled material (crater wall slumping or ejecta rollback) or rheological changes in the uppermost magma column. Type 2a and 2b behaviors are shown to be a function of the overpressure of the bursting slug. In general, our imaging data support a broadening of the current paradigm for strombolian behavior, incorporating an uppermost conduit that can be more variable than is commonly considered.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Verlag","publisherLocation":"Berlin, Germany","doi":"10.1007/s00445-006-0107-0","usgsCitation":"Patrick, M.R., Harris, A.J., Ripepe, M., Dehn, J., Rothery, D.A., and Calvari, S., 2007, Strombolian explosive styles and source conditions: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 69, p. 769-784, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-006-0107-0.","productDescription":"24 p.","startPage":"769","endPage":"784","numberOfPages":"24","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":321307,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"69","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2007-01-09","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"574d6656e4b07e28b6684efc","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Patrick, Matthew R. 0000-0002-8042-6639 mpatrick@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8042-6639","contributorId":2070,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Patrick","given":"Matthew","email":"mpatrick@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":629584,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Harris, Andrew J. L.","contributorId":169434,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Harris","given":"Andrew","email":"","middleInitial":"J. L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":629585,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ripepe, Maurizio","contributorId":169435,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Ripepe","given":"Maurizio","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":629586,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Dehn, Jonathan","contributorId":49322,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dehn","given":"Jonathan","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":629587,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Rothery, David A.","contributorId":98183,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rothery","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":629588,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Calvari, Sonia","contributorId":168721,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Calvari","given":"Sonia","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":629589,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6}]}} ,{"id":70170370,"text":"70170370 - 2007 - Introduction--Subduction's sharpest arrow","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-04-19T11:39:05","indexId":"70170370","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-25T08:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"chapter":"Introduction","title":"Introduction--Subduction's sharpest arrow","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Volcanism and Subduction: The Kamchatka Region","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.1029/172GM02","usgsCitation":"Eichelberger, J., 2007, Introduction--Subduction's sharpest arrow, chap. Introduction of Volcanism and Subduction: The Kamchatka Region, p. 1-2, https://doi.org/10.1029/172GM02.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"2","numberOfPages":"2","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320175,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"571756dce4b0ef3b7caa621d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Eichelberger, J.C.","contributorId":46277,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Eichelberger","given":"J.C.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627008,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70170805,"text":"70170805 - 2007 - Volcano-electromagnetic effects","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-05-03T10:30:28","indexId":"70170805","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-20T18:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Volcano-electromagnetic effects","docAbstract":"Volcano-electromagnetic effects—electromagnetic (EM) signals generated by volcanic activity—derive from a variety of physical processes. These include piezomagnetic effects, electrokinetic effects, fluid vaporization, thermal demagnetization/remagnetization, resistivity changes, thermochemical effects, magnetohydrodynamic effects, and blast-excited traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs). Identification of different physical processes and their interdependence is often possible with multiparameter monitoring, now common on volcanoes, since many of these processes occur with different timescales and some are simultaneously identified in other geophysical data (deformation, seismic, gas, ionospheric disturbances, etc.). EM monitoring plays an important part in understanding these processes.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Encyclopedia of geomagnetism and paleomagnetism","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Springer","publisherLocation":"Netherlands","usgsCitation":"Johnston, M.J., 2007, Volcano-electromagnetic effects, chap. of Encyclopedia of geomagnetism and paleomagnetism, p. 984-987.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"984","endPage":"987","numberOfPages":"4","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320873,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://profile.usgs.gov/myscience/upload_folder/ci2010Nov2221320042871158.pdf","text":"Volcano-electromagnetic fields","size":"90.0 kb","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Article"},{"id":320874,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5729cbbce4b0b13d3919a3e5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Johnston, Malcolm J. S.","contributorId":169113,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Johnston","given":"Malcolm","email":"","middleInitial":"J. S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":628499,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70170367,"text":"70170367 - 2007 - Volcano deformation--Geodetic monitoring techniques","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-04-19T11:23:38","indexId":"70170367","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-20T02:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"title":"Volcano deformation--Geodetic monitoring techniques","docAbstract":"This book describes the techniques used by volcanologists to successfully predict several recent volcanic eruptions by combining information from various scientific disciplines, including geodetic techniques. Many recent developments in the use of state-of-the-art and emerging techniques, including Global Positioning System and Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry, mean that most books on volcanology are out of date, and this book includes chapters devoted entirely to these two techniques.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Verlag","publisherLocation":"Berlin","isbn":"9783540493020","usgsCitation":"Dzurisin, D., and Lu, Z., 2007, Volcano deformation--Geodetic monitoring techniques, 441 p.","productDescription":"441 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"441","numberOfPages":"441","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320174,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"tableOfContents":"ch. 1. The modern volcanologist's tool kit / Daniel Dzurisin --
ch. 2. Classical surveying techniques / Daniel Dzurisin --
ch. 3. Continuous monitoring with in situ sensors / Daniel Dzurisin --
ch. 4. The global positioning system: a multipurpose tool / Daniel Dzurisin --
ch. 5. Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar (InSAR) / Daniel Dzurisin and Zhong Lu --
ch. 6. Photogrammetry / Ren A. Thompson and Steve P. Schilling --
ch. 7. Lessons from deforming volcanoes --
ch. 8. Analytical volcano deformation source models / Michael Lisowski --
ch. 9. Borehole observations of continuous strain and fluid pressure / Evelyn A. Roeloffs and Alan T. Linde --
ch. 10. Hydrothermal systems and volcano geochemistry / Robert O. Fournier --
ch. 11. Challenges and opportunities for the 21st century / Daniel Dzurisin
The May 18, 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption perturbed the atmosphere and generated atmosphere-to-ground coupled airwaves, which were recorded on at least 35 seismometers operated by the Pacific Northwest Seismograph Network (PNSN). From 102 distinct travel time picks we identify coherent airwaves crossing Washington State primarily to the north and east of the volcano. The travel time curves provide evidence for both stratospheric refractions (at 200 to 300 km from the volcano) as well as probable thermospheric refractions (at 100 to 350 km). The very few first-hand reports of audible volcano sounds within about 80 km of the volcano coincide with a general absence of ground-coupled acoustic arrivals registered within about 100 km and are attributed to upward refraction of sound waves. From the coherent refracted airwave arrivals, we identify at least four distinct sources which we infer to originate 10 s, 114 s, ∼ 180 s and 319 s after the onset of an 8:32:11 PDT landslide. The first of these sources is attributed to resultant depressurization and explosion of the cryptodome. Most of the subsequent arrivals also appear to be coincident with a source located at or near the presumed volcanic conduit, but at least one of the later arrivals suggests an epicenter displaced about 9 km to the northwest of the vent. This dislocation is compatible with the direction of the sector collapse and lateral blast. We speculate that this concussion corresponds to a northern explosion event associated with hot cryptodome entering the Toutle River Valley.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","publisherLocation":"Amsterdam","doi":"10.1016/j.epsl.2007.03.001","usgsCitation":"Johnson, J., and Malone, S.D., 2007, Ground-coupled acoustic airwaves from Mount St. Helens provide constraints on the May 18, 1980 eruption: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 258, p. 16-31, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2007.03.001.","productDescription":"16 p.","startPage":"16","endPage":"31","numberOfPages":"16","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320870,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Washington","county":"Skamania County","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -122.2836685180664,\n 46.13012537588263\n ],\n [\n -122.2836685180664,\n 46.25347289852333\n ],\n [\n -122.10582733154295,\n 46.25347289852333\n ],\n [\n -122.10582733154295,\n 46.13012537588263\n ],\n [\n -122.2836685180664,\n 46.13012537588263\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"258","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5729cbb4e4b0b13d3919a360","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Johnson, J.B.","contributorId":35107,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Johnson","given":"J.B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":628486,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Malone, S. D.","contributorId":48310,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Malone","given":"S.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":628487,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70170375,"text":"70170375 - 2007 - Volcanic eruptions, hazards, and mitigation","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-02-25T15:05:45","indexId":"70170375","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-20T01:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"chapter":"15","title":"Volcanic eruptions, hazards, and mitigation","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Wilderness Medicine","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","publisherLocation":"Philadelphia, PA","isbn":"9781455733569","usgsCitation":"Feldman, J., and Tilling, R., 2007, Volcanic eruptions, hazards, and mitigation, chap. 15 of Wilderness Medicine, p. 372-398.","productDescription":"27 p.","startPage":"372","endPage":"398","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320179,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57175700e4b0ef3b7caa6411","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Auerbach, P. S.","contributorId":168697,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Auerbach","given":"P.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627029,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1}],"authors":[{"text":"Feldman, J.","contributorId":24570,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Feldman","given":"J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627027,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Tilling, R.I. 0000-0003-4263-7221","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4263-7221","contributorId":98311,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Tilling","given":"R.I.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627028,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70171024,"text":"70171024 - 2007 - National volcanic ash operations plan for aviation","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-05-17T11:32:34","indexId":"70171024","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-20T01:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"title":"National volcanic ash operations plan for aviation","docAbstract":"The National Aviation Weather Program Strategic Plan (1997) and the National Aviation Weather Initiatives (1999) both identified volcanic ash as a high-priority informational need to aviation services. The risk to aviation from airborne volcanic ash is known and includes degraded engine performance (including flameout), loss of visibility, failure of critical navigational and operational instruments, and, in the worse case, loss of life. The immediate costs for aircraft encountering a dense plume are potentially major—damages up to $80 million have occurred to a single aircraft. Aircraft encountering less dense volcanic ash clouds can incur longer-term costs due to increased maintenance of engines and external surfaces. The overall goal, as stated in the Initiatives, is to eliminate encounters with ash that could degrade the in-flight safety of aircrews and passengers and cause damage to the aircraft. This goal can be accomplished by improving the ability to detect, track, and forecast hazardous ash clouds and to provide adequate warnings to the aviation community on the present and future location of the cloud. To reach this goal, the National Aviation Weather Program established three objectives: (1) prevention of accidental encounters with hazardous clouds; (2) reduction of air traffic delays, diversions, or evasive actions when hazardous clouds are present; and (3) the development of a single, worldwide standard for exchange of information on airborne hazardous materials. To that end, over the last several years, based on numerous documents (including an OFCMsponsored comprehensive study on aviation training and an update of Aviation Weather Programs/Projects), user forums, and two International Conferences on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety (1992 and 2004), the Working Group for Volcanic Ash (WG/VA), under the OFCM-sponsored Committee for Aviation Services and Research, developed the National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation and Support of the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) International Airways Volcano Watch. This plan defines agency responsibilities, provides a comprehensive description of an interagency standard for volcanic ash products and their formats, describes the agency backup procedures for operational products, and outlines the actions to be taken by each agency following an occurrence of a volcanic eruption that subsequently affects and impacts aviation services. Since our most recent International Conference on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety, volcanic ash-related product and service activities have grown considerably along with partnerships and alliances throughout the aviation community. In January 2005, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Centers for Environment Prediction began running the Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model in place of the Volcanic Ash Forecast Transport and Dispersion (VAFTAD) model, upgrading support to the volcanic ash advisory community. Today, improvements to the HYSPLIT model are ongoing based on recommendations by the OFCM-sponsored Joint Action Group for the Selection and Evaluation of Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion Models and the Joint Action Group for Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion Modeling (Research and Development Plan). Two international workshops on volcanic ash have already taken place, noticeable improvements and innovations in education, training, and outreach have been made, and federal and public education and training programs on volcanic ash-related products, services, and procedures iv continue to evolve. For example, in partnership with Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University and other academic institutions, volcanic ash hazard and mitigation training has been incorporated into aviation meteorology courses. As an essential next step, our volcanic ash-related efforts in the near term will be centered on the development of an interagency implementation plan to document and address the most critical needs of the volcanic ash advisory community. This interagency plan, developed as the result of the cooperative efforts of six federal agencies, follows the guidelines in support of the ICAO International Airways Volcano Watch. The signatories on the next page are committed to volcanic ash operations for aviation and will work toward full implementation through agency programs, initiatives, and procedures. I extend my sincere thanks to all members of the WG/VA, subject-matter experts, and to my staff for their collaborative and cooperative efforts in developing this first-ever national volcanic ash operations plan.
","language":"English","publisher":"Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research FCM-P35-2007","publisherLocation":"Silver Spring, Maryland","usgsCitation":"United States Department of Commerce, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007, National volcanic ash operations plan for aviation, 68 p.","productDescription":"68 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"68","numberOfPages":"68","onlineOnly":"Y","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":321305,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":321304,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.ofcm.gov/p35-nvaopa/pdf/FCM-P35-2007-NVAOPA.pdf","text":"FCM-P35-2007","size":"529 KB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"574d65eae4b07e28b66848f0","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"United States Department of Commerce","contributorId":169080,"corporation":true,"usgs":false,"organization":"United States Department of Commerce","id":629582,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","contributorId":128155,"corporation":true,"usgs":false,"organization":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","id":629583,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70170397,"text":"70170397 - 2007 - Lava effusion rate definition and measurement: a review","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-30T15:37:08","indexId":"70170397","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-18T14:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1109,"text":"Bulletin of Volcanology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Lava effusion rate definition and measurement: a review","docAbstract":"Measurement of effusion rate is a primary objective for studies that model lava flow and magma system dynamics, as well as for monitoring efforts during on-going eruptions. However, its exact definition remains a source of confusion, and problems occur when comparing volume flux values that are averaged over different time periods or spatial scales, or measured using different approaches. Thus our aims are to: (1) define effusion rate terminology; and (2) assess the various measurement methods and their results. We first distinguish between instantaneous effusion rate, and time-averaged discharge rate. Eruption rate is next defined as the total volume of lava emplaced since the beginning of the eruption divided by the time since the eruption began. The ultimate extension of this is mean output rate, this being the final volume of erupted lava divided by total eruption duration. Whether these values are total values, i.e. the flux feeding all flow units across the entire flow field, or local, i.e. the flux feeding a single active unit within a flow field across which many units are active, also needs to be specified. No approach is without its problems, and all can have large error (up to ∼50%). However, good agreement between diverse approaches shows that reliable estimates can be made if each approach is applied carefully and takes into account the caveats we detail here. There are three important factors to consider and state when measuring, giving or using an effusion rate. First, the time-period over which the value was averaged; second, whether the measurement applies to the entire active flow field, or a single lava flow within that field; and third, the measurement technique and its accompanying assumptions.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Verlag","publisherLocation":"Berlin","doi":"10.1007/s00445-007-0120-y","usgsCitation":"Calvari, S., Dehn, J., and Harris, A., 2007, Lava effusion rate definition and measurement: a review: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 70, p. 1-22, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-007-0120-y.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"22","numberOfPages":"22","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320194,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"70","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2007-03-10","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"571756dee4b0ef3b7caa624a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Calvari, Sonia","contributorId":168721,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Calvari","given":"Sonia","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627085,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Dehn, Jonathan","contributorId":49322,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dehn","given":"Jonathan","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627086,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Harris, A.","contributorId":67703,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Harris","given":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":627087,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70170800,"text":"70170800 - 2007 - The health hazards of volcanic ash--A guide for the public","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-09-03T14:50:27.253297","indexId":"70170800","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-18T10:45:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":3,"text":"Organization Series"},"title":"The health hazards of volcanic ash--A guide for the public","docAbstract":"This document has been prepared by the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN), Cities and Volcanoes Commission, GNS Science and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to promote the safety of those who experience volcanic ashfall. This guide explains the potential health effects of volcanic ash and gives details on how to protect yourself and your family in the event of a volcanic ashfall.
","language":"English","publisher":"International Volcanic Hazards Health Network","publisherLocation":"University of Cambridge, UK","usgsCitation":"Horwell, C., and Baxter, P., 2007, The health hazards of volcanic ash--A guide for the public, 14 p.","productDescription":"14 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"14","numberOfPages":"14","onlineOnly":"Y","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320869,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":320868,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.ivhhn.org/images/pamphlets/Health_Guidelines_English_WEB.pdf","text":"The Health Hazards of Volcanic Ash","size":"706 kb","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"The Health Hazards of Volcanic Ash","linkHelpText":"The Health Hazards of Volcanic Ash"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5729cbbbe4b0b13d3919a3d5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Horwell, C.","contributorId":149587,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Horwell","given":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":628471,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Baxter, P.","contributorId":149588,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Baxter","given":"P.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":628472,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70170787,"text":"70170787 - 2007 - Guidelines on preparedness before, during, and after an ashfall","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-09-03T14:49:37.672607","indexId":"70170787","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-14T06:15:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":3,"text":"Organization Series"},"title":"Guidelines on preparedness before, during, and after an ashfall","docAbstract":"This document has been prepared by the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN), Cities and Volcanoes Commission, GNS Science and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to promote the safety of those who experience volcanic ashfall. It details procedures to follow if warning of a volcanic ashfall is given, recommends what to do during ashfall, and what methods are most effective for cleaning up volcanic ash after the event.
","publisher":"International Volcanic Health Hazard Network","publisherLocation":"Durham City","usgsCitation":"Horwell, C., 2007, Guidelines on preparedness before, during, and after an ashfall, 14 p.","productDescription":"14 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"14","numberOfPages":"14","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320854,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":320853,"rank":1,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.ivhhn.org/pamphlets.html","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57287a30e4b0b13d391865c4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Horwell, C.","contributorId":149587,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Horwell","given":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":628399,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70170360,"text":"70170360 - 2007 - Observations of volcanic tremor during January-February 2005 eruption of Mt. Veniaminof, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-04-19T10:50:03","indexId":"70170360","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-14T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1109,"text":"Bulletin of Volcanology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Observations of volcanic tremor during January-February 2005 eruption of Mt. Veniaminof, Alaska","docAbstract":"Mt. Veniaminof, Alaska Peninsula, is a stratovolcano with a summit ice-filled caldera containing a small intracaldera cone and active vent. From January 2 to February 21, 2005, Mt. Veniaminof erupted. The eruption was characterized by numerous small ash emissions (VEI 0 to 1) and accompanied by low-frequency earthquake activity and volcanic tremor. We have performed spectral analyses of the seismic signals in order to characterize them and to constrain their source. Continuous tremor has durations of minutes to hours with dominant energy in the band 0.5– 4.0 Hz, and spectra characterized by narrow peaks either irregularly (non-harmonic tremor) or regularly spaced (harmonic tremor). The spectra of non-harmonic tremor resemble those of low-frequency events recorded simultaneously with surface ash explosions, suggesting that the source mechanisms might be similar or related. We propose that non-harmonic tremor at Mt. Veniaminof results from the coalescence of gas bubbles while low-frequency events are related to the disruption of large gas pockets within the conduit. Harmonic tremor, characterized by regular and quasisinusoidal waveforms, has duration of hours. Spectra containing up to five harmonics suggest the presence of a resonating source volume that vibrates in a longitudinal acoustic mode. An interesting feature of harmonic tremor is that frequency is observed to change over time; spectral lines move towards higher or lower values while the harmonic nature of the spectra is maintained. Factors controlling the variable characteristics of harmonic tremor include changes in acoustic velocity at the source and variations of the effective size of the resonator.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Link","publisherLocation":"Berlin","doi":"10.1007/s00445-007-0119-4","usgsCitation":"De Angelis, S., and McNutt, S.R., 2007, Observations of volcanic tremor during January-February 2005 eruption of Mt. Veniaminof, Alaska: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 69, p. 927-940, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-007-0119-4.","productDescription":"14 p.","startPage":"927","endPage":"940","numberOfPages":"14","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320171,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","county":"Lake and Peninsula Borough","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -159.862060546875,\n 55.88763544617004\n ],\n [\n -159.862060546875,\n 56.4078233698268\n ],\n [\n -158.829345703125,\n 56.4078233698268\n ],\n [\n -158.829345703125,\n 55.88763544617004\n ],\n [\n -159.862060546875,\n 55.88763544617004\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"69","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2007-03-06","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"571756e5e4b0ef3b7caa6280","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"De Angelis, Slivio","contributorId":52055,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"De Angelis","given":"Slivio","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626990,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"McNutt, Stephen R.","contributorId":38133,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McNutt","given":"Stephen","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626991,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70171027,"text":"70171027 - 2007 - Swarms of repeating long-period earthquakes at Shishaldin Volcano, Alaska, 2001-2004","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-01-12T10:48:44","indexId":"70171027","displayToPublicDate":"2016-01-13T01:30:00","publicationYear":"2007","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2499,"text":"Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Swarms of repeating long-period earthquakes at Shishaldin Volcano, Alaska, 2001-2004","docAbstract":"During 2001–2004, a series of four periods of elevated long-period seismic activity, each lasting about 1–2 months, occurred at Shishaldin Volcano, Aleutian Islands, Alaska. The time periods are termed swarms of repeating events, reflecting an abundance of earthquakes with highly similar waveforms that indicate stable, non-destructive sources. These swarms are characterized by increased earthquake amplitudes, although the seismicity rate of one event every 0.5–5 min has remained more or less constant since Shishaldin last erupted in 1999. A method based on waveform cross-correlation is used to identify highly repetitive events, suggestive of spatially distinct source locations. The waveform analysis shows that several different families of similar events co-exist during a given swarm day, but generally only one large family dominates. A network of hydrothermal fractures may explain the events that do not belong to a dominant repeating event group, i.e. multiple sources at different locations exist next to a dominant source. The dominant waveforms exhibit systematic changes throughout each swarm, but some of these waveforms do reappear over the course of 4 years indicating repeatedly activated source locations. The choked flow model provides a plausible trigger mechanism for the repeating events observed at Shishaldin, explaining the gradual changes in waveforms over time by changes in pressure gradient across a constriction within the uppermost part of the conduit. The sustained generation of Shishaldin's long-period events may be attributed to complex dynamics of a multi-fractured hydrothermal system: the pressure gradient within the main conduit may be regulated by temporarily sealing and reopening of parallel flow pathways, by the amount of debris within the main conduit and/or by changing gas influx into the hydrothermal system. The observations suggest that Shishaldin's swarms of repeating events represent time periods during which a dominant source is activated.
\nA geographic description of the distribution of Elaphe vulpina (Western Foxsnake) in northern Michigan.
","language":"English","usgsCitation":"Bowen, K., and Beever, E., 2007, Geographic distribution: Elaphe vulpina (Western Foxsnake): Herpetological Review, v. 38, no. 4, p. 486-486.","productDescription":"1 p.","startPage":"486","endPage":"486","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":320067,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":320066,"rank":1,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ssarherps.org/herpetological-review-pdfs/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Michigan","county":"Leelanau County","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -85.79669952392578,\n 44.95362275412842\n ],\n [\n -85.86982727050781,\n 44.94123034058637\n ],\n [\n -85.90347290039061,\n 44.96989891757659\n ],\n [\n -85.93643188476562,\n 44.9701418104164\n ],\n [\n -85.98312377929688,\n 44.91570812366967\n ],\n [\n -85.99960327148438,\n 44.902577996288876\n ],\n [\n -85.92681884765624,\n 44.88336370243942\n ],\n [\n -85.9192657470703,\n 44.910116028706625\n ],\n [\n -85.92063903808594,\n 44.91546500042076\n ],\n [\n -85.93265533447266,\n 44.91522187614324\n ],\n [\n -85.93265533447266,\n 44.9198410615237\n ],\n [\n -85.89591979980467,\n 44.91911174115028\n ],\n [\n -85.89557647705077,\n 44.900389350114814\n ],\n [\n -85.86639404296875,\n 44.90063253713748\n ],\n [\n -85.86536407470703,\n 44.92202896709906\n ],\n [\n -85.82862854003906,\n 44.92689068119166\n ],\n [\n -85.8468246459961,\n 44.898200620623534\n ],\n [\n -85.79532623291016,\n 44.90111890809696\n ],\n [\n -85.79669952392578,\n 44.95362275412842\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n },\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -85.95943450927734,\n 45.057273870867576\n ],\n [\n -85.96115112304688,\n 45.06430660687767\n ],\n [\n -85.96595764160155,\n 45.06818636678991\n ],\n [\n -85.97351074218749,\n 45.073278152059224\n ],\n [\n -85.98140716552733,\n 45.08370277319465\n ],\n [\n -85.98037719726562,\n 45.102850027248486\n ],\n [\n -85.97591400146484,\n 45.115934329959494\n ],\n [\n -85.97213745117188,\n 45.12538223876264\n ],\n [\n -85.97522735595703,\n 45.13119555886255\n ],\n [\n -85.97522735595703,\n 45.13991442812086\n ],\n [\n -85.98552703857422,\n 45.150811140066864\n ],\n [\n -85.99411010742188,\n 45.15734816743497\n ],\n [\n -86.05487823486328,\n 45.162189926488395\n ],\n [\n -86.07376098632812,\n 45.14233609966964\n ],\n [\n -86.06552124023438,\n 45.127562303230874\n ],\n [\n -86.06243133544922,\n 45.1147229464535\n ],\n [\n -86.06517791748047,\n 45.10600022609897\n ],\n [\n -86.06449127197266,\n 45.10066901851988\n ],\n [\n -86.0614013671875,\n 45.09606439314969\n ],\n [\n -86.05247497558594,\n 45.09267127368945\n ],\n [\n -86.04457855224608,\n 45.087823610447764\n ],\n [\n -86.03221893310547,\n 45.076429982283855\n ],\n [\n -86.0171127319336,\n 45.05751639340642\n ],\n [\n -86.0009765625,\n 45.050482822163225\n ],\n [\n -85.95943450927734,\n 45.057273870867576\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"38","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"571210b0e4b0ef3b7ca643e2","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Bowen, K.D.","contributorId":56469,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bowen","given":"K.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626728,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Beever, E.A.","contributorId":80040,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Beever","given":"E.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":626729,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ]}