{"pageNumber":"247","pageRowStart":"6150","pageSize":"25","recordCount":6232,"records":[{"id":1948,"text":"wsp1476 - 1959 - Investigations of Sediment Transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebraska: With Application of Data from Turbulence Flume","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:22","indexId":"wsp1476","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1476","title":"Investigations of Sediment Transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebraska: With Application of Data from Turbulence Flume","docAbstract":"An investigation of fluvial sediments of the Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebr., was begun in 1946 and expanded in 1949 to provide information on sediment transportation. Construction of an artificial turbulence flume at which the total sediment discharge of the Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebr., could be measured with suspended-sediment sampling equipment was completed in 1949. Since that time. measurements have been made at the turbulence flume and at several selected sections in a reach upstream and downstream from the flume. The Middle Loup River upstream from Dunning traverses the sandhills region of north-central Nebraska and has a drainage area of approximately 1,760 square miles. The sandhills are underlain by the Ogallala formation of Tertiary age and are mantled by loess and dune sand. The topography is characterized by northwest-trending sand dunes, which are stabilized by grass cover. The valley floor upstream from Dunning is generally about half a mile wide, is about 80 feet lower than the uplands, and is composed of sand that was mostly stream deposited. The channel is defined by low banks. Bank erosion is prevalent and is the source of most of the sediment load. The flow originates mostly from ground-water accretion and varies between about 200 and 600 cfs (cubic feet per second). Measured suspended-sediment loads vary from about 200 to 2,000 tons per day, of which about 20 percent is finer than 0.062 millimeter and 100 percent is finer than 0.50 millimeter. Total sediment discharges vary from about 500 to 3,500 tons per day, of which about 10 percent is finer than 0.062 millimeter, about 90 percent is finer than 0.50 millimeter, and about 98 percent is finer than 2.0 millimeters. The measured suspended-sediment discharge in the reach near Dunning averages about one-half of the total sediment discharge as measured at the turbulence flume. \r\n\r\nThis report contains information collected during the period October 1, 1948, to September 30, 1952. The information includes sediment discharges; particle-size analyses of total load, of measured suspended sediment, and of bed material; water discharges and other hydraulic data for the turbulence flume and the selected sections. \r\n\r\nSediment discharges have been computed with several different formulas, and insofar as possible, each computed load has been compared with data from the turbulence flume. Sediment discharges computed with the Einstein procedure did not agree well, in general, with comparable measured loads. However, a satisfactory representative cross section for the reach could not be determined with the cross sections that were selected for this investigation. If the computed cross section was narrower and deeper than a representative cross section for the reach, computed loads were high; and if the computed cross section was wider and shallower than a representative cross section for the reach, computed loads were low. Total sediment discharges computed with the modified Einstein procedure compared very well with the loads of individual size ranges and the measured total loads at the turbulence flume. Sediment discharges computed with the Straub equation averaged about twice the measured total sediment discharge at the turbulence flume. Bed-load discharges computed with the Kalinske equation were of about the right magnitude; however, high computed loads were associated with low total loads, low unmeasured loads, and low concentrations of measured suspended sediment coarser than 0.125 millimeter. Bed-load discharges computed with the Schoklitsch equation seemed somewhat high; about one-third of the computed loads were slightly higher than comparable unmeasured loads. Although, in general, high computed discharges with the Schoklitsch equation were associated with high measured total loads, high unmeasured loads, and high concentrations of measured suspended sediment coarser than 0.125 millimeter, the trend was not consistent. Bed-load discharges computed ","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Geological Survey (U.S.)","doi":"10.3133/wsp1476","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation as part of a program of the Department of the Interior \r\nfor development of the Missouri River basin","usgsCitation":"Hubbell, D.W., and Matejka, D.Q., 1959, Investigations of Sediment Transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebraska: With Application of Data from Turbulence Flume: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1476, vi, 123 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1476.","productDescription":"vi, 123 p.","costCenters":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":138428,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27279,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247069,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-06.pdf","size":"869","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247070,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-07.pdf","size":"1038","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247071,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-08.pdf","size":"2110","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247072,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-09.pdf","size":"4117","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247073,"rank":412,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-10.pdf","size":"4227","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247074,"rank":413,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-11.pdf","size":"3435","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247075,"rank":414,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-12.pdf","size":"1509","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247076,"rank":415,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1476/plate-13.pdf","size":"3463","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4afde4b07f02db696b8a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hubbell, David Wellington","contributorId":88330,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hubbell","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"Wellington","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144418,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Matejka, Donald Quintin","contributorId":103658,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Matejka","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"Quintin","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144419,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":4757,"text":"wsp1473_ed1 - 1959 - Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-11-25T11:55:33","indexId":"wsp1473_ed1","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1473","title":"Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water","docAbstract":"

The chemical composition of natural water is derived from many different sources of solutes, including gases and aerosols from the atmosphere, weathering and erosion of rocks and soil, solution or precipitation reactions occurring below the land surface, and cultural effects resulting from activities of man. Some of the processes of solution or precipitation of minerals can be closely evaluated by means of principles of chemical equilibrium including the law of mass action and the Nernst equation. Other processes are irreversible and require consideration of reaction mechanisms and rates. The chemical composition of the crustal rocks of the earth and the composition of the ocean and the atmosphere are significant in evaluating sources of solutes in natural fresh water.

\n

The ways in which solutes are taken up or precipitated and the amounts present in solution are influenced by many environmental factors, especially climate, structure and position: of rock strata, and biochemical effects associated with life cycles of plants and animals, both microscopic and macroscopic. Taken all together and in application with the further influence of the general circulation of all water in the hydrologic cycle, the chemical principles and environmental factors form a basis for the developing science of natural-water chemistry.

\n

Fundamental data used in the determination of water quality are obtained by the chemical analysis of water samples in the laboratory or onsite sensing of chemical properties in the field. Sampling is complicated by changes in composition of moving water and the effects of particulate suspended material. Most of the constituents determined are reported in gravimetric units, usually milligrams per liter or milliequivalents per liter.

\n

More than 60 constituents and properties are included in water analyses frequently enough to provide a basis for consideration of the sources from which each is generally derived, most probable forms of elements and ions in solution, solubility controls, expected concentration ranges and other chemical factors. Concentrations of elements that are commonly present in amounts less than a few tens of micrograms per liter cannot always be easily explained, but present information suggests many are controlled by solubility of hydroxide or carbonate or by sorption on solid particles.

\n

Chemical analyses may be grouped and statistically evaluated by averages, frequency distributions, or ion correlations to summarize large volumes of data. Graphing of analyses or of groups of analyses aids in showing chemical relationships among waters, probable sources of solutes, areal water-quality regimen, and water-resources evaluation. Graphs may show water type based on chemical composition, relationships among ions, or groups of ions in individual waters or many waters considered simultaneously. The relationships of water quality to hydrologic parameters, such as stream discharge rate or ground-water flow patterns, can be shown by mathematical equations, graphs, and maps.

\n

About 75 water analyses selected from the literature are tabulated to illustrate the relationships described, and some of these, along with many others that are not tabulated, are also utilized in demonstrating graphing and mapping techniques.

\n

Relationships of water composition to source rock type are illustrated by graphs of some of the tabulated analyses. Activities of man may modify water composition extensively through direct effects of pollution and indirect results of water development, such as intrusion of sea water in ground-water aquifiers.

\n

Water-quality standards for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use have been published by various agencies. Irrigation project requirements for water quality are particularly intricate.

\n

Fundamental knowledge of processes that control natural water composition is required for rational management of water quality. 

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/wsp1473_ed1","usgsCitation":"Hem, J.D., 1959, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water (1st edition): U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1473, Report: ix, 269 p.; 2 Plates: 7.24 x 10.39 inches and 19.01 x 7.21 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1473_ed1.","productDescription":"Report: ix, 269 p.; 2 Plates: 7.24 x 10.39 inches and 19.01 x 7.21 inches","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":346,"text":"Indiana Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":478,"text":"North Dakota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":34685,"text":"Dakota Water Science 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States\"}}]}","edition":"1st edition","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db699d0c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hem, John David","contributorId":42577,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hem","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"David","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":149725,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":56161,"text":"ofr5976 - 1959 - Surface waters of Illinois River basin in Arkansas and Oklahoma","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:12:10","indexId":"ofr5976","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1959","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"59-76","title":"Surface waters of Illinois River basin in Arkansas and Oklahoma","docAbstract":"The estimated runoff from the Illinois River basin of 1,660 square miles has averaged 1,160,000 acre-feet per year during the water years 1938-56, equivalent to an average annual runoff depth of 13.1 inches. About 47 percent of the streamflow is contributed from drainage in Arkansas, where an average of 550,000 acre-ft per year runs off from 755 square miles, 45.5 percent of the total drainage area.\r\nThe streamflow is highly variable. Twenty-two years of record for Illinois River near Tahlequah, Okla., shows a variation in runoff for the water year 1945 in comparison with 1954 in a ratio of almost 10 to 1. Runoff in 1927 may have exceeded that of 1945, according to records for White River at Beaver, Ark., the drainage basin just east of the Illinois River basin. Variation in daily discharge is suggested by a frequency analysis of low flows at the gaging station near Tahlequah, Okla. The mean flow at that site is 901 cfs (cubic feet per second), the median daily flow is 350 cfs, and the lowest 30-day mean flow in a year probably will be less than 130 cfs half of the time and less than 20 cfs every 10 years on the average.\r\n\r\nThe higher runoff tends to occur in the spring months, March to May, a 3-month period that, on the average, accounts for almost half of the annual flow. High runoff may occur during any month in the year, but in general, the streamflow is the lowest in the summer. The mean monthly flow of Illinois River near Tahlequah, Okla., for September is about 11 percent of that for May. Records show that there is flow throughout the year in Illinois River and its principal tributaries Osage Creek, Flint Creek and Barren Fork.\r\n\r\nThe high variability in streamflow in this region requires the development of storage by impoundment if maximum utilization of the available water supplies is to be attained. For example, a 120-day average low flow of 22 cfs occurred in 1954 at Illinois River near Tahlequah, Okla. To have maintained the flow at 350 cfs, the median daily flow during the 19-year base period, an impoundment at that site would have required a usable storage of 185,000 acre-ft to satisfy this demand during the drought years 1954-1956.\r\n\r\nThe surface waters of the Illinois River basin are excellent quality being suitable for municipal, agriculture and most industrial uses. The average concentration of the dissolved mineral content is about 105 ppm (parts per million) and the hardness about 85 ppm. The water is slightly alkaline, having a range of pH values from 7.2 to 8.0.\r\n\r\nThis report gives the estimated average discharge at gaging stations and approximations of average discharge at the State line for 3 sub-basins during the 19-year period October 1937 to September 1956, used as a base period in this report. Duration-of-flow data for various percentages of the time are shown for the period of observed record at the gaging stations; similar data are estimated for the selected base period. Storage requirements to sustain flow during the recent drought years are given for 3 stations. The streamflow records in the basin are presented on a monthly and annual basis through September 1957; provisional records for 3 stations are included through July 1958 for correlation purposes. Results of discharge measurements are given for miscellaneous sites where low-flow observations have been made.\r\n\r\n(available as photostat copy only)","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr5976","usgsCitation":"Laine, L., 1959, Surface waters of Illinois River basin in Arkansas and Oklahoma: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 59-76, 65 p., 13 figs., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5976.","productDescription":"65 p., 13 figs.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":184636,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aeee4b07f02db6912cd","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Laine, L.L.","contributorId":100464,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Laine","given":"L.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254854,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2371,"text":"wsp1463 - 1958 - Records of springs in the Snake River valley, Jerome and Gooding Counties, Idaho, 1899-1947","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2013-11-22T12:49:20","indexId":"wsp1463","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T07:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1463","title":"Records of springs in the Snake River valley, Jerome and Gooding Counties, Idaho, 1899-1947","docAbstract":"Many springs and seeps discharge water from the north wall of the valley of\nthe Snake River between Milner and Bliss, Idaho. These are fed by a large\nground-water body lying east and north of the river, beneath the Snake River\nPlain. Much ground water is pumped on the plain, many irrigation wells having\nbeen drilled since 1946. Heavy withdrawal of ground water from wells may\nalter the discharge rates and regimens of the springs and may affect downstream\nflow of the river. For that reason, the historic record of discharge from\nthe springs is an important part of the basis on which hydrologic changes can be\ndetermined. The records also would facilitate appraisal of the total groundwater\nresources of the Snake River Plain.\nThis report brings together in a single volume all obtainable records for the\nperiod 1899-1947. The report also includes descriptive data and a brief history\nof work done.\nThe springs occur in a 40-mile reach of the valley of the Snake River between\nMilner Dam and Bliss. Most are on the north side of the river but a few are\non the south.\nThe earliest measurements of record were made by F. S. Shirley and N. S. Dils,\nof the U. S. Geological Survey, in 1899. The next were by J. D. Stannard for\nthe Idaho State Engineer and by Dils in 1902. Few measurements were made\nfrom 1903 to 1916. Somewhat more systematic measurements were made by\nthe Geological Survey and by local agencies in 1917-20, 1923-25, and 1931, and\nat several intervals thereafter. In 1950 the Geological Survey began continuous,\nsystematic measurements by installing and operating gaging stations on four\nrepresentative springs and by making yearly direct measurements of all large\nsprings. The recent records are not included in this report; they have been\npublished yearly in a series of reports on stream discharge.\nThe report includes lists of all published sources from which data were compiled,\nand cites many unpublished sources. The principal workers and agencies\nthat have obtained records are listed also.\nThe quality and accuracy of the compiled records, as might be expected, are\nnot uniform, as the records were collected under varying circumstances, by many\nindividuals, and according to changing or differing standards. The continuity is\ngenerally poor. Nevertheless, the compilation represents the base from which\nfurther work must start and is an extremely valuable record. It represents about\n30 large springs and groups of springs, having discharge rates ranging from a\nfraction of a cubic foot per second to well over 1,000 cfs. Many smaller springs\nand seeps never have been measured. The fluctuation indexes for individual springs or groups range from 2 to 41\npercent. The fluctuation index is the mean deviation of the discharge rate from\nthe arithmetic mean, expressed as a percentage of the arithmetic mean. Although\nto some extent the indexes are a measure of the consistency of the record,\nthey also seem to reflect actual differences in range of discharge, and they indicate\nthat springs upstream in the Snake River valley fluctuate through a wider range\nthan do those downstream. The fluctuations are rather slow, which reflects the\nequalizing influence of the large ground-water reservoir that supplies the springs.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1463","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Idaho Department of Reclamation","usgsCitation":"Nace, R.L., Van’t Hul, A., and McQueen, I., 1958, Records of springs in the Snake River valley, Jerome and Gooding Counties, Idaho, 1899-1947: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1463, Report: v, 62 p. Plate 1: 12 inches x 12.34 inches; Plate 2: 10 inches x 19.45 inches; Plate 3: 21.50 inches x 10.38 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1463.","productDescription":"Report: v, 62 p. Plate 1: 12 inches x 12.34 inches; Plate 2: 10 inches x 19.45 inches; Plate 3: 21.50 inches x 10.38 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":279590,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/wsp1463"},{"id":137745,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1463/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":247204,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1463/plate-1_north.pdf","size":"999","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":247205,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1463/plate-1_south.pdf","size":"878","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":28319,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1463/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":28320,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1463/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Idaho","county":"Gooding County;Jerome County","otherGeospatial":"Snake River Valley","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -115.1281,42.4997 ], [ -115.1281,43.1984 ], [ -113.8855,43.1984 ], [ -113.8855,42.4997 ], [ -115.1281,42.4997 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a60e4b07f02db63550a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nace, Raymond L.","contributorId":93460,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nace","given":"Raymond","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145096,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Van’t Hul, Arthur","contributorId":57049,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Van’t Hul","given":"Arthur","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145094,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"McQueen, I.S.","contributorId":59774,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McQueen","given":"I.S.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145095,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":56119,"text":"ofr5862 - 1958 - History of natural flows--Kansas River","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-09-29T08:18:17","indexId":"ofr5862","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"58-62","title":"History of natural flows--Kansas River","docAbstract":"

Through its Water Resources Division, the United States Geological Survey has become the major water-resources historian for the nation. The Geological Survey's collection of streamflow records in Kansas began on a very small scale in 1895 in response to some early irrigation interest, Since that time the program has grown, and we now have about 21 350 station-years of record accumulated. A station-year of record is defined as a continuous record of flow collected at a fixed point for a period of one year. Volume of data at hand, however, is not in itself an, adequate measure of its usefullness. An important element in historical streamflow data which enhances its value as a tool for the prediction of the future is the length of continuous records available in the area being studied. The records should be of sufficient length that they may be regarded as a reasonable sample of what has gone before and may be expected in the future. Table 1 gives a graphical inventory of the available streamflow records in Kansas. It shows that, in general, there is a fair coverage of stations with records of about thirty-seven years in length, This is not a long period as history goes but it does include considerable experience with floods and droughts.

Although a large quantity of data on Kansas streamflow has been accumulated, hydrologists and planning engineers find that stream flow information for many areas of the State is considerably less than adequate. The problem of obtaining adequate coverage has been given careful study by the Kansas Water Resources Board in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey and a report entitled \"Development of A Balanced Stream-Gaging Program For Kansas\", has been published by the Board as Bulletin No. 4, That report presents an analysis of the existing stream-gaging program and recommendations for a program to meet the rapidly expanding needs for more comprehensive basic data.

The Kansas River is formed near Junction City, Kansas, by the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican Rivers, From that point the river flows eastward about 175 miles to Kansas City where it empties into the Missouri River. The basic history of its natural flow can be depicted in general by the records from three gaging stations. The one at Bonner Springs, about 21 miles upstream from the mouth, may be considered as representing the total outflow from the basin; the one at Ogden, about 8 miles downstream from the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican Rivers, may be considered as representing the combined contribution of those streams to the Kansas River flow; and the one at Topeka, being only about 16 river miles nearer to Ogden than to Bonner Springs, may be considered as representing flows at the mid-point along the river.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr5862","usgsCitation":"Leeson, E.R., 1958, History of natural flows--Kansas River: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 58-62, 5 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5862.","productDescription":"5 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181980,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0062/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":346209,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0062/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Kansas","otherGeospatial":"Kansas River","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -94.56756591796875,\n 39.115144700901475\n ],\n [\n -94.65545654296875,\n 39.15988184949157\n ],\n [\n -94.80377197265625,\n 39.15988184949157\n ],\n [\n -94.9383544921875,\n 39.138581990583525\n ],\n [\n -95.01800537109374,\n 39.098094501249086\n ],\n [\n -95.17730712890625,\n 39.098094501249086\n ],\n [\n -95.504150390625,\n 39.14071226655259\n ],\n [\n -95.701904296875,\n 39.14071226655259\n ],\n [\n -95.90789794921875,\n 39.179046210512645\n ],\n [\n -96.0919189453125,\n 39.23650795487107\n ],\n [\n -96.31439208984375,\n 39.27053717095511\n ],\n [\n -96.67144775390625,\n 39.22799807055236\n ],\n [\n -96.75659179687499,\n 39.16201148082406\n ],\n [\n -96.8115234375,\n 39.06824672852526\n ],\n [\n -96.778564453125,\n 39.036252959636606\n ],\n [\n -96.71539306640625,\n 39.05118518880596\n ],\n [\n -96.59454345703125,\n 39.081040177486095\n ],\n [\n -96.46820068359374,\n 39.12792964388499\n ],\n [\n -96.17156982421874,\n 39.132190775931036\n ],\n [\n -95.93536376953125,\n 39.027718840211605\n ],\n [\n -95.745849609375,\n 39.01491572891582\n ],\n [\n -95.58380126953125,\n 39.01704974180402\n ],\n [\n -95.41351318359375,\n 38.974357249228206\n ],\n [\n -95.06469726562499,\n 38.89530825492018\n ],\n [\n -94.85595703125,\n 38.9380483825641\n ],\n [\n -94.56756591796875,\n 39.115144700901475\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a54e4b07f02db62c076","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Leeson, Elwood R.","contributorId":18843,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Leeson","given":"Elwood","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254787,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":56118,"text":"ofr5859 - 1958 - Surface waters of North Boggy Creek basin in the Muddy Boggy Creek basin in Oklahoma","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:12:08","indexId":"ofr5859","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"58-59","title":"Surface waters of North Boggy Creek basin in the Muddy Boggy Creek basin in Oklahoma","docAbstract":"Analysis of short-term streamflow data in North Boggy Creek basin indicates that the average runoff in this region is substantial. The streamflow is highly variable from year to year and from month to month.\r\nThe estimated total yield from the North Boggy Creek watershed of 231 square miles averages 155,000 acre-feet annually, equivalent to an average runoff depth of 12 1/2 inches. Almost a fourth of the annual volume is contributed by Chickasaw Creek basin, where about 35,000 acre-feet runs off from 46 square miles.\r\n\r\nTwo years of records show a variation in runoff for the calendar year 1957 in comparison to 1956 in a ratio of 13 to 1 for the station on North Boggy Creek and a ratio of 18 to 1 for the station on Chickasaw Creek. In a longer-term record downstream on Muddy Boggy Creek near Farris, the corresponding range was 17 to 1, while the calendar years 1945 and 1956 show a 20-fold variation in runoff.\r\n\r\nWithin a year the higher runoff tends to occur in the spring months, April to June, a 3-month period that, on the average, accounts for at least half of the annual flow. High runoff may occur during any month in the year, but in general, the streamflow is relatively small in the summer. Records for the gaging stations noted indicate that there is little or no base flow in the summer, and thus there will be periods of no flow at times in most years. The variation in runoff during a year is suggested by a frequency analysis of low flows at the reference station on Muddy Boggy Creek near Farris. Although the mean flow at that site is 955 cfs (cubic feet per second), the median daily flow is only 59 cfs and the lowest 30-day flow in a year will average less than 1 cfs in 4 out of 10 years on the average. The estimated mean flow on North Boggy Creek near Stringtown is 124 cfs, but the estimated median daily flow is only 3 1/2 cfs. Because of the high variability in streamflow, development of storage by impoundment will be necessary to attain maximum utilization of the available water supplies in this region.\r\n\r\nThe surface waters of the North Boggy Creek basin are of excellent quality, being suitable for municipal, agricultural and most industrial uses. The concentration of the dissolved mineral content is usually about 75 ppm (parts per million) and the hardness about 50 ppm. The water is slightly acidic, with a range of pH values from 6.5 to 7.0.\r\n\r\nThis report gives the estimated average discharge at gaging stations and 3 selected other sites in the basin for the 16-year period October 1938 to September 1954, used as a base period in this report. Duration-of-flow data for selected percentages of the time are shown for the period of observed record on North Boggy and Chickasaw Creeks; similar data are estimated for the base period 1938-54. The basic records in the basin are presented on a monthly and annual basis (through March 1958). For other sites at which discharge measurements have been made, a tabulation of observed discharge is given. These data have been correlated to obtain information on the low-water portion of the duration curves at 2 of the sites.\r\n\r\n(available as photostat copy only)","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr5859","usgsCitation":"Laine, L., 1958, Surface waters of North Boggy Creek basin in the Muddy Boggy Creek basin in Oklahoma: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 58-59, 41 p., 4 figs., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5859.","productDescription":"41 p., 4 figs.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181281,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aeee4b07f02db6911e7","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Laine, L.L.","contributorId":100464,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Laine","given":"L.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254786,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":3177,"text":"wsp1369A - 1958 - Selected topics of fluid mechanics","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:35","indexId":"wsp1369A","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1369","chapter":"A","title":"Selected topics of fluid mechanics","docAbstract":"The fundamental equations of fluid mechanics are specific expressions of the principles of motion which are ascribed to Isaac Newton. Thus, the equations which form the framework of applied fluid mechanics or hydraulics are, in addition to the equation of continuity, the Newtonian equations of energy and momentum. These basic relationships are also the foundations of river hydraulics. The fundamental equations are developed in this report with sufficient rigor to support critical examinations of their applicability to most problems met by hydraulic engineers of the Water Resources Division of the United States Geological Survey. Physical concepts are emphasized, and mathematical procedures are the simplest consistent with the specific requirements of the derivations. In lieu of numerical examples, analogies, and alternative procedures, this treatment stresses a brief methodical exposition of the essential principles. \r\n\r\nAn important objective of this report is to prepare the user to read the literature of the science. Thus, it begins With a basic vocabulary of technical symbols, terms, and concepts. Throughout, emphasis is placed on the language of modern fluid mechanics as it pertains to hydraulic engineering. The basic differential and integral equations of simple fluid motion are derived, and these equations are, in turn, used to describe the essential characteristics of hydrostatics and piezometry. The one-dimensional equations of continuity and motion are defined and are used to derive the general discharge equation. The flow net is described as a means of demonstrating significant characteristics of two-dimensional irrotational flow patterns. A typical flow net is examined in detail. \r\n\r\nThe influence of fluid viscosity is described as an obstacle to the derivation of general, integral equations of motion. It is observed that the part played by viscosity is one which is usually dependent on experimental evaluation. It follows that the dimensionless ratios known as the Euler, Froude, Reynolds, Weber, and Cauchy numbers are defined as essential tools for interpreting and using experimental data. The derivations of the energy and momentum equations are treated in detail. One-dimensional equations for steady nonuniform flow are developed, and the restrictions applicable to the equations are emphasized. Conditions of uniform and gradually varied flow are discussed, and the origin of the Chezy equation is examined in relation to both the energy and the momentum equations. The inadequacy of all uniform-flow equations as a means of describing gradually varied flow is explained. Thus, one of the definitive problems of river hydraulics is analyzed in the light of present knowledge. This report is the outgrowth of a series of short schools conducted during the spring and summer of 1953 for engineers of the Surface Water Branch, Water Resources Division, U. S. Geological Survey. The topics considered are essentially the same as the topics selected for inclusion in the schools. However, in order that they might serve better as a guide and outline for informal study, the arrangement of the writer's original lecture notes has been considerably altered. The purpose of the report, like the purpose of the schools which inspired it, is to build a simple but strong framework of the fundamentals of fluid mechanics. It is believed that this framework is capable of supporting a detailed analysis of most of the practical problems met by the engineers of the Geological Survey. \r\n\r\nIt is hoped that the least accomplishment of this work will be to inspire the reader with the confidence and desire to read more of the recent and current technical literature of modern fluid mechanics.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1369A","usgsCitation":"Kindsvater, C.E., 1958, Selected topics of fluid mechanics: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1369, 154 p. :illus., maps. ;24 cm. :1-51 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1369A.","productDescription":"154 p. :illus., maps. ;24 cm. :1-51 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":139020,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1369a/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":30135,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1369a/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa8e4b07f02db667cd4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kindsvater, Carl E.","contributorId":73182,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kindsvater","given":"Carl","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146378,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":56117,"text":"ofr5858 - 1958 - Surface waters of the Washita River basin in Oklahoma--magnitude, distribution, and quality of streamflow","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:12:08","indexId":"ofr5858","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"58-58","title":"Surface waters of the Washita River basin in Oklahoma--magnitude, distribution, and quality of streamflow","docAbstract":"Analysis of streamflow data shows that water supply in the Washita River basin is variable, ranging from substantial amounts and almost continuous flow in the Washita River in the lower end of the basin to somewhat limited and intermittent flow in the upper part of the basin. The total yield of the basin averages 1,557,000 acre-ft per year, of which somewhat less than 1.3 percent is contributed by headwater areas in Texas.\r\nThe surface waters are generally of acceptable quality for drinking purposes, excellent for irrigation uses, and suitable for many industrial purposes.\r\n\r\nIn Oklahoma the high amounts of runoff tend to occur in the spring months. High runoff may occur during any month in the year but, in general, the available streamflow is relatively small in the summer. Most tributary streams have little sustained base flow and many are dry at times each year. Because of the high variability in flow, development of storage will be necessary to attain maximum utilization of the available water supplies.\r\n\r\nThis report gives the average discharge at most gaging stations and at several additional sites for the 16-year period October 1938 to September 1954, used as a standard period in this report. Data are also shown on water available at several gaging stations and other sites for a given percentage of the time during the 16-year standard period. For several gaging stations data are given on minimum discharges for periods of various length during the most critical periods of record. For all gaging stations a summary of available basic data on streamflow is presented on a monthly annual basis. For other sites at which discharge measurements have been made, a tabulation of observed discharge is given.\r\n\r\n(available as photostat copy only)","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr5858","usgsCitation":"Laine, L., 1958, Surface waters of the Washita River basin in Oklahoma--magnitude, distribution, and quality of streamflow: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 58-58, 134 p., 16 figs., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5858.","productDescription":"134 p., 16 figs.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181183,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a0be4b07f02db5fbda9","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Laine, L.L.","contributorId":100464,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Laine","given":"L.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254785,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":56106,"text":"ofr5843 - 1958 - Low-flow frequency data in the Delaware River basin","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:12:08","indexId":"ofr5843","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"58-43","title":"Low-flow frequency data in the Delaware River basin","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr5843","usgsCitation":"Hardison, C., and Martin, R., 1958, Low-flow frequency data in the Delaware River basin: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 58-43, 2 p., 12 tables, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5843.","productDescription":"2 p., 12 tables","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181695,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a7fe4b07f02db64875c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hardison, C.H.","contributorId":32506,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hardison","given":"C.H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254769,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Martin, R.O.R.","contributorId":40193,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Martin","given":"R.O.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254770,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1241,"text":"wsp1370B - 1958 - Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":51902,"text":"ofr5634 - 1956 - Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana","indexId":"ofr5634","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"title":"Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":1241,"text":"wsp1370B - 1958 - Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana","indexId":"wsp1370B","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"chapter":"B","title":"Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:18","indexId":"wsp1370B","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1370","chapter":"B","title":"Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana","docAbstract":"The floods of October 9-11, 1954 in the Chicago area of Illinois and Indiana were the greatest in the history of the region. The 24-hour rainfall of 5.63 inches on October 9-10 and the 48-hour total rainfall of 6.72 inches were the greatest recorded at the Chicago Weather Bureau station in 69 and 84 years respectively. Unofficial measurements in the southern suburbs of the city indicate that nearly 11 inches of rain fell in 48 hours. \r\n\r\nThese intense rainfalls on the flat areas of the Little Calumet, Kankakee, and Chicago Rivers caused the streams to overflow their banks flooding heavily industrialized and densely populated parts of the city. Slow drainage of flood waters in large areas along these rivers resulted in a prolonged period of inundation. On the Kankakee River at Shelby, Ind., the crest of the flood occurred 17 days after the rain. \r\n\r\nThe flow of South Branch Chicago River has been diverted by locks into the Des Plaines River since 1900. The elevation at the mouth of the South Branch is held usually about 3 feet below lake level. During the flood the river rose about 3.4 feet above lake level. To relieve flooding, the lock gates were opened allowing the river to discharge into the lake for the first time in 54 years. \r\n\r\nNotable rates of discharge occurred in the Des Plaines River basin, where Long Run had a unit discharge of 152 cfs per square mile from a drainage area of 20.8 square miles, and Flag Creek had 80.2 cfs per square mile from a drainage area of 16. 2 square miles. \r\n\r\nFlood damages in Chicago and its suburbs have been estimated by the U. S. Weather \r\nBureau to be about $25 million. \r\n\r\nIncluded herein, for the Chicago area in Illinois and Indiana are general descriptions of the floods, an isohyetal map showing the amounts and areal distribution of the storm rainfall, detailed stage and discharge data at 49 gaging stations, peak discharges at 4 miscellaneous sites, and water-surface elevations at 1 lake site. Floodcrest stages collected by other agencies are also presented.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1370B","usgsCitation":"Daniels, W.S., and Hale, M.D., 1958, Floods of October 1954 in the Chicago area, Illinois and Indiana: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1370, vi, p. 107-200 :ill. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1370B.","productDescription":"vi, p. 107-200 :ill. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":137607,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1370b/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26170,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1370b/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49d9e4b07f02db5dfa3c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Daniels, Warren S.","contributorId":85155,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Daniels","given":"Warren","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143427,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hale, Malcolm D.","contributorId":62984,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hale","given":"Malcolm","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143426,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":16539,"text":"ofr58109 - 1958 - Hydraulic and hydrologic aspects of flood-plain planning","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-10-25T10:30:16","indexId":"ofr58109","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1958","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"58-109","title":"Hydraulic and hydrologic aspects of flood-plain planning","docAbstract":"

The valid incentives compelling occupation of the flood plain, up to and even into the stream channel, undoubtedly have contributed greatly to the development of the country. But the result has been a heritage of flood disaster, suffering, and enormous costs.

Flood destruction awakened a consciousness toward reduction and elimination of flood hazards, originally manifested in the protection of existing developments. More recently, increased information and realization of the problem have shown the impracticability of permitting developments that require costly flood protection. The idea of flood zoning, or flood-plain planning, has received greater impetus as a result of such realization.

This study shows how hydraulic and hydrologic data concerning the flood regimen of a stream can be used in appraising its flood potential and the risk inherent in occupation of its flood plain. The approach involves the study of flood magnitudes as recorded or computed; flood frequencies based on the experience shown by many years of gaging-station record; use of existing or computed stage-discharge relations and flood profiles; and, where required, the preparation of flood-zone maps to show the areas inundated by floods of several magnitudes and frequencies.

Methods are outlined that will enable the planner to delineate areas subject to inundation by floods of specific recurrence intervals for three conditions; (1) for the immediate vicinity of a gaging station, (2) for a gaged stream at a considerable distance from a gaging station, and (3) for an ungaged stream. Curves have been developed from which the average depth for a flood of specific frequency can be estimated on the basis of the average depth for bankfull flow; this simplified approach should be very useful in the initial stages of flood-plain planning.

Brief discussions are included on various types of flood hazards, the effects of urbanization on flood runoff, and zoning considerations.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr58109","usgsCitation":"Wiitala, S.W., Jetter, K.R., and Sommerville, A.J., 1958, Hydraulic and hydrologic aspects of flood-plain planning: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 58-109, Report: vi, 92 p.; 2 Plates: 21.67 x 11.76 inches and 17.18 x 18.98 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr58109.","productDescription":"Report: vi, 92 p.; 2 Plates: 21.67 x 11.76 inches and 17.18 x 18.98 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":150397,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0109/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":358793,"rank":2,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0109/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":358794,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1958/0109/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Pennsylvania","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[-80.1496,40.6758],[-80.1059,40.6754],[-80.058,40.6755],[-79.9931,40.674],[-79.9901,40.675],[-79.9858,40.6742],[-79.964,40.6728],[-79.9149,40.6737],[-79.9021,40.6731],[-79.8797,40.6726],[-79.8652,40.6728],[-79.8512,40.6726],[-79.8427,40.6724],[-79.8293,40.6712],[-79.8136,40.6724],[-79.8003,40.6722],[-79.7978,40.6723],[-79.7499,40.6699],[-79.7238,40.6691],[-79.708,40.6684],[-79.6995,40.6686],[-79.6929,40.6696],[-79.6929,40.6687],[-79.6935,40.6682],[-79.6946,40.6668],[-79.6957,40.6632],[-79.6957,40.6618],[-79.6944,40.6591],[-79.6931,40.6569],[-79.6925,40.656],[-79.6912,40.6537],[-79.6905,40.6524],[-79.6899,40.6501],[-79.6892,40.6488],[-79.6891,40.6451],[-79.6897,40.6438],[-79.6908,40.6406],[-79.6919,40.6378],[-79.6925,40.6374],[-79.696,40.6337],[-79.6966,40.6328],[-79.6972,40.6319],[-79.6978,40.6309],[-79.6995,40.6291],[-79.7061,40.6254],[-79.709,40.6235],[-79.7114,40.6221],[-79.7132,40.6202],[-79.7149,40.6175],[-79.7155,40.6166],[-79.7166,40.6147],[-79.7178,40.6129],[-79.7237,40.6073],[-79.732,40.6036],[-79.7332,40.6031],[-79.7344,40.6026],[-79.7356,40.6021],[-79.7368,40.6017],[-79.7458,40.5997],[-79.7476,40.5992],[-79.75,40.5987],[-79.7512,40.5982],[-79.7614,40.5944],[-79.7638,40.593],[-79.7644,40.5926],[-79.7656,40.5916],[-79.7662,40.5912],[-79.7708,40.5861],[-79.7714,40.5852],[-79.7725,40.5824],[-79.7731,40.5806],[-79.7737,40.5793],[-79.7736,40.5783],[-79.7741,40.5751],[-79.774,40.5702],[-79.7739,40.5693],[-79.7732,40.567],[-79.7726,40.5652],[-79.77,40.5603],[-79.7687,40.558],[-79.7648,40.5499],[-79.7607,40.5513],[-79.7522,40.5515],[-79.7413,40.5503],[-79.7406,40.5503],[-79.7376,40.5495],[-79.7352,40.5486],[-79.7345,40.5482],[-79.7302,40.546],[-79.7216,40.5411],[-79.7067,40.5296],[-79.7061,40.5287],[-79.7055,40.5278],[-79.7046,40.5201],[-79.7022,40.5002],[-79.7021,40.4789],[-79.7029,40.4653],[-79.7041,40.4439],[-79.7041,40.4262],[-79.7183,40.4156],[-79.7273,40.4131],[-79.7314,40.4103],[-79.7325,40.4058],[-79.7372,40.4002],[-79.7389,40.397],[-79.7437,40.3965],[-79.7455,40.3956],[-79.7495,40.391],[-79.7543,40.3886],[-79.7598,40.3903],[-79.7628,40.3912],[-79.7628,40.3889],[-79.765,40.3848],[-79.7662,40.3829],[-79.7704,40.3824],[-79.7744,40.3578],[-79.7856,40.31],[-79.7871,40.3009],[-79.7876,40.2977],[-79.7858,40.2969],[-79.7852,40.2964],[-79.7765,40.2898],[-79.7759,40.2889],[-79.7752,40.2871],[-79.7752,40.2862],[-79.7763,40.2848],[-79.7775,40.2839],[-79.7781,40.2834],[-79.7787,40.2829],[-79.7799,40.2825],[-79.7811,40.282],[-79.7823,40.282],[-79.7889,40.2823],[-79.7919,40.2822],[-79.7925,40.2822],[-79.7943,40.2817],[-79.7966,40.279],[-79.7966,40.2772],[-79.7965,40.2758],[-79.7927,40.2695],[-79.7902,40.2668],[-79.7896,40.2659],[-79.7884,40.2646],[-79.7883,40.2619],[-79.7888,40.2601],[-79.7894,40.2596],[-79.7917,40.2578],[-79.7923,40.2573],[-79.7987,40.2477],[-79.8009,40.244],[-79.8068,40.2384],[-79.8054,40.233],[-79.7993,40.2304],[-79.7848,40.2284],[-79.7991,40.2227],[-79.8187,40.216],[-79.8402,40.2083],[-79.864,40.1997],[-79.8711,40.1973],[-79.8765,40.1972],[-79.8867,40.1961],[-79.8903,40.196],[-79.8951,40.1955],[-79.9091,40.1984],[-79.9164,40.201],[-79.9201,40.2032],[-79.9359,40.2088],[-79.9414,40.21],[-79.9585,40.2165],[-79.9646,40.2205],[-79.9678,40.2249],[-79.9709,40.229],[-79.9704,40.2317],[-79.9699,40.2344],[-79.9617,40.2396],[-79.9521,40.2411],[-79.9455,40.2417],[-79.9335,40.2438],[-79.9269,40.2453],[-79.924,40.2476],[-79.9157,40.2532],[-79.9377,40.2605],[-79.9706,40.2703],[-79.9992,40.2788],[-80.0339,40.2894],[-80.0406,40.2911],[-80.0736,40.3018],[-80.0802,40.303],[-80.0985,40.3085],[-80.1815,40.3344],[-80.1965,40.3464],[-80.2295,40.3733],[-80.2469,40.387],[-80.2769,40.4131],[-80.315,40.4445],[-80.3587,40.4798],[-80.3417,40.4929],[-80.3323,40.4999],[-80.2976,40.5252],[-80.2811,40.5365],[-80.2682,40.5454],[-80.2576,40.5529],[-80.2505,40.558],[-80.234,40.5692],[-80.2287,40.573],[-80.2264,40.5758],[-80.2205,40.5818],[-80.2176,40.5837],[-80.2152,40.5837],[-80.211,40.5847],[-80.2104,40.5856],[-80.2093,40.5879],[-80.2057,40.5907],[-80.201,40.594],[-80.1963,40.5968],[-80.1909,40.5997],[-80.1886,40.6011],[-80.1856,40.603],[-80.1839,40.6066],[-80.1822,40.6089],[-80.1786,40.6104],[-80.1738,40.61],[-80.1659,40.6093],[-80.1641,40.6097],[-80.1635,40.6107],[-80.1605,40.6116],[-80.1545,40.6122],[-80.1527,40.6136],[-80.1503,40.6146],[-80.1461,40.616],[-80.1486,40.6496],[-80.1494,40.6704],[-80.1496,40.6758]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Allegheny\",\"state\":\"PA\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a51e4b07f02db62a332","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wiitala, Sulo Werner","contributorId":20315,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wiitala","given":"Sulo","email":"","middleInitial":"Werner","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":173013,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jetter, Karl R.","contributorId":108132,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jetter","given":"Karl","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":173015,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Sommerville, Alan J.","contributorId":64640,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sommerville","given":"Alan","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":173014,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":12500,"text":"ofr574 - 1957 - Estimate of underflow in the Niobrara River Basin across the Wyoming-Nebraska state line","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-05-21T07:38:47","indexId":"ofr574","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"57-4","title":"Estimate of underflow in the Niobrara River Basin across the Wyoming-Nebraska state line","docAbstract":"

The purpose of this report is to estimate the amount of ground water flowing across the Wyoming-Nebraska State line within the Niobrara Rive basin and to evaluate the accuracy of that estimate. The approximate effort involed in obtaining additional data to determine the underflow more accurately also is discussed.

\n
\n

This report was prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Wyoming State Engineer and Director of the Conservation and Survey Division of the University of Nebraska, at the request of the Niobrara River Compact Commission. The following paragraph requesting the work is quoted from the report of the Engineering Subcommittee to the Niobrara River Compact Commission, Ainsworth, Nebr., October 29, 1956:

\n
\n

Need for additional data under this item is confined to ground-water data since surface-water data discussions are covered under item 1. It is recommended that the Commission request the Geological Survey in cooperation with each of the three states to develop estimates of ground-water flows across state lines, together with ground-water contour maps extending adequate distanced into each state, such estimates and maps to be based on existing data and qualified by their evaluation of resultant percentage degree of accuracy. In addition they should be requested to furnish an estimate of cost to obtain additional data necessary to bring the estimate to within a more acceptable degree of accuracy as may be desired by the Commission.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Lincoln, NE","doi":"10.3133/ofr574","usgsCitation":"Babcock, H.M., and Keech, C., 1957, Estimate of underflow in the Niobrara River Basin across the Wyoming-Nebraska state line (Revised May 1969): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 57-4, 15 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr574.","productDescription":"15 p.","numberOfPages":"19","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":287352,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":287351,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1957/0004/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Nebraska;Wyoming","otherGeospatial":"Niobrara River Basin","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -104.623,42.362 ], [ -104.623,42.9447 ], [ -103.5919,42.9447 ], [ -103.5919,42.362 ], [ -104.623,42.362 ] ] ] } } ] }","edition":"Revised May 1969","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a0ee4b07f02db5fdd08","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Babcock, H. M.","contributorId":90698,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Babcock","given":"H.","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":166237,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Keech, Charles F.","contributorId":39699,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Keech","given":"Charles F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":166236,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":4088,"text":"cir376 - 1957 - Computation of peak discharge at culverts","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-17T13:13:21","indexId":"cir376","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"376","title":"Computation of peak discharge at culverts","docAbstract":"Methods for computing peak flood flow through culverts on the basis of a field survey of highwater marks and culvert geometry are presented. These methods are derived from investigations of culvert flow as reported in the literature and on extensive laboratory studies of culvert flow. For convenience in computation, culvert flow has been classified into six types, according to the location of the control section and the relative heights of the head-water and tail-water levels. The type of flow which occurred at any site can be determined from the field data and the criteria given in this report. A discharge equation has been developed for each flow type by combining the energy and continuity equations for the distance between an approach section upstream from the culvert and a terminal section within the culvert barrel. The discharge coefficient applicable to each flow type is listed for the more common entrance geometries. Procedures for computing peak discharge through culverts are outlined in detail for each of the six flow types.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir376","usgsCitation":"Carter, R.W., 1957, Computation of peak discharge at culverts: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 376, iv, 25 p. :ill. ;26 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir376.","productDescription":"iv, 25 p. :ill. ;26 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":31186,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1957/0376/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":123137,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1957/0376/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b19e4b07f02db6a7f15","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Carter, Rolland William","contributorId":107257,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Carter","given":"Rolland","email":"","middleInitial":"William","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":148169,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":39142,"text":"pp282B - 1957 - River channel patterns: Braided, meandering, and straight","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-03-23T15:52:01","indexId":"pp282B","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"282","chapter":"B","title":"River channel patterns: Braided, meandering, and straight","docAbstract":"

Channel pattern is used to describe the plan view of a reach of river as seen from an airplane, and includes meandering, braiding, or relatively straight channels.

Natural channels characteristically exhibit alternating pools or deep reaches and riffles or shallow reaches, regardless of the type of pattern. The length of the pool or distance between riffles in a straight channel equals the straight line distance between successive points of inflection in the wave pattern of a meandering river of the same width. The points of inflection are also shallow points and correspond to riffles in the straight channel. This distance, which is half the wavelength of the meander, varies approximately as a linear function of channel width. In the data we analysed the meander wavelength, or twice the distance between successive riffles, is from 7 to 12 times the channel width. It is concluded that the mechanics which may lead to meandering operate in straight channels.

River braiding is characterized by channel division around alluvial islands. The growth of an island begins as the deposition of a central bar which results from sorting and deposition of the coarser fractions of the load which locally cannot be transported. The bar grows downstream and in height by continued deposition on its surface, forcing the water into the flanking channels, which, to carry the flow, deepen and cut laterally into the original banks. Such deepening locally lowers the water surface and the central bar emerges as an island which becomes stabilized by vegetation. Braiding was observed in a small river in a laboratory. Measurements of the adjustments of velocity, depth, width, and slope associated with island development lead to the conclusion that braiding is one of the many patterns which can maintain quasi-equilibrium among discharge, load, and transporting ability. Braiding does not necessarily indicate an excess of total load.

Channel cross section and pattern are ultimately controlled by the discharge and load provided by the drainage basin. It is important, therefore, to develop a picture of how the several variables involved in channel shape interact to result in observed channel characteristics. Such a rationale is summarized as follows:

Channel width appears to be primarily a function of near-bankfull discharge, in conjunction with the inherent resistance of bed and bank to scour. Excessive width increases the shear on the bed at the expense of that on the bank and the reverse is true for very narrow widths. Because at high stages width adjustment can take place rapidly and with the evacuation or deposition of relatively small volumes of debris, achievement of a ,relatively stable width at high flow is a primary adjustment to which the further interadjustments between depth, velocity, slope, and roughness tend to accommodate.

Channel roughness, to the extent that it is determined by particle size, is an independent factor related to the drainage basin rather than to the channel. Roughness in streams carrying fine material, however, is also a function of the dunes or other characteristics of bed configuration. Where roughness is independently determined as well as discharge and load, these studies indicate that a particular slope is associated with the roughness. At the width determined by the discharge, velocity and depth must be adjusted to satisfy quasi-equilibrium in accord with the particular slope. But if roughness also is variable, depending on the transitory configuration of the bed, then a number of combinations of velocity, depth, and slope will satisfy equilibrium.

An increase in load at constant discharge, width, and caliber of load tends to be associated with an increasing slope if the roughness (dune or bed configuration) changes with the load. In the laboratory river an increase of load at constant discharge, width, and caliber resulted in progressive aggradation of long reaches of channel at constant slope.

The adjustments of several variables tending toward the establishment of quasi-equilibrium in river channels lead to the different channel patterns observed in nature. For example, the data indicate that at a given discharge, meanders occur at smaller values of slope than do’ braids. Further, at the same slope braided channels are associated with higher bankfull discharges than are meanders. An additional example is provided by the division of discharge around islands in braided rivers which produces numerous small channels. The changes in slope, roughness, and channel shape which accompany this division are in accord with quasi-equilibrium adjustments observed in the comparison of large and small rivers.

","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Physiographic and hydraulic studies of rivers (Professional Paper 282)","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/pp282B","usgsCitation":"Leopold, L.B., and Wolman, M.G., 1957, River channel patterns: Braided, meandering, and straight: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 282, iv, p. 39-85, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp282B.","productDescription":"iv, p. 39-85","numberOfPages":"50","costCenters":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":338219,"rank":3,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp282A","linkHelpText":"Professional Paper 212-A: Ephemeral streams - Hydraulic factors and their relation to the drainage net"},{"id":338221,"rank":5,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp282D","linkHelpText":"Professional Paper 212-D: Flow resistance in sinuous or irregular channels"},{"id":338220,"rank":4,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp282C","linkHelpText":"Professional Paper 212-C: River flood plains: Some observations on their formation"},{"id":119373,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0282b/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":66641,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0282b/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a0fe4b07f02db5ff225","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Leopold, Luna Bergere","contributorId":93884,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Leopold","given":"Luna","email":"","middleInitial":"Bergere","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":221031,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Wolman, M. Gordon","contributorId":85163,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wolman","given":"M.","email":"","middleInitial":"Gordon","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":221032,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":56086,"text":"ofr5789 - 1957 - Seventh progress report on the cooperative investigation of springs and streamflow in the Tecolote tunnel area of Santa Barbara County, California","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-05-21T09:31:00","indexId":"ofr5789","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"57-89","title":"Seventh progress report on the cooperative investigation of springs and streamflow in the Tecolote tunnel area of Santa Barbara County, California","docAbstract":"

This report is the seventh in a a continuing series of progress reports giving the results of discharge measurements made at selected springs and streams in the Tecolote Tunnel are area of the Santa Ynez Mountains. The mountains. The measurement program was begun on its present scale in the latter part of 1948 by the Geological Survey at the request of the Santa Barbara County Water Agency and is being continued under a cooperative agreement whereby each agency pays half the cost of the investigation.

\n
\n

The purpose of the program is to obtain sufficient factual data to determine what effect, if any, the inflow of ground water into Tecolote Tunnel will have on the flow of springs and streams in the vicinity of the tunnel. The area involved in the study, shown by plate 1, was made large enough to include a number of springs and steams believe to be outside the zone of influence of the tunnel.

\n
\n

Tecolote Tunnel, completed late in 1955, was built by the Bureau of Reclamation for the purpose of conveying water stored in Cachuma Reservoir to the city of Santa Barbara and adjacent coastal communities. The alinement of the tunnel is roughly north and south through the center of the arbitrarily chosen study area which extends from the Painted Cave area on the east to Refugio Pass on the west and from the Santa Ynez River on the North to the Pacific Ocean on the south.

\n
\n

The purpose of this report is to make available the factual data obtained from July 1954 to June 1956, together with a brief presentation of precipitation, springflow, and tunnel outflow for the entire period of investigation.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/ofr5789","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Santa Barbara County Water Agency","usgsCitation":"Peterson, W.C., 1957, Seventh progress report on the cooperative investigation of springs and streamflow in the Tecolote tunnel area of Santa Barbara County, California: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 57-89, 138 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5789.","productDescription":"138 p.","numberOfPages":"138","temporalStart":"1954-07-01","temporalEnd":"1956-06-30","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":287405,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":287404,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1957/0089/report.pdf"}],"scale":"50000","country":"United States","state":"California","county":"Santa Barbara County","otherGeospatial":"Tecolote Tunnel","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -120.083333,34.633333 ], [ -120.083333,34.416667 ], [ -119.75,34.416667 ], [ -119.75,34.633333 ], [ -120.083333,34.633333 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49fbe4b07f02db5f4b58","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Peterson, W. C.","contributorId":57051,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Peterson","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254746,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1347,"text":"wsp1415 - 1957 - Water resources of the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin, North Carolina","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-12-19T21:34:27.121988","indexId":"wsp1415","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1415","title":"Water resources of the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin, North Carolina","docAbstract":"Sufficient water is available in the basin of the Yadkin and Pee Dee Rivers to meet present requirements and those for many years to come if water use increases at about the present rate. Data presented in this report show that the average annual streamflow from approximately 82 percent of the basin area during the 25-year period, 1929-53, was about 6,200 mgd, representing essentially the total available water supply. Comparison of the available water supply to the estimated withdrawal use (excluding water power) of both surface and ground water of 600 mgd indicates the relative utilization of the water resources of the basin at present. If proper pollution controls are observed and practiced so that water in the various streams may be reused several times, the potential water available is even greater than indicated by the above comparison. Preliminary studies indicate that the quantity of water now being withdrawn from ground-water reservoirs in the basin is only a fraction of the total that may be obtained from this source.\r\n\r\nTwenty-eight of the 64 municipalities having public water-supply systems use surface water; however, as the largest cities in the area use surface supplies, about 85 percent of the water used for public supplies is from surface sources.\r\n\r\nOf the 20 complete-record stream-gaging stations now in operation in this area 7 have been in operation for 24 years or longer. Periodic measurements of the rate of flow have been made at 31 additional sites on streams scattered widely over the basin. All available streamflow data including those for 1953 are summarized in either graphic or tabular form, or both. Because of the critically low flows occurring during the drought of 1954, several illustrations include data for 1954 and the early months of 1955 for comparison with the minima of previous years.\r\n\r\nAdequate water for domestic use is available from wells throughout the basin. The consolidated rocks of the Piedmont furnish water for small industries and for municipalities whose population is less than about 1,500. The yields of wells in rock range from less than 1 gpm to as much as 200 gpm with local, rather than regional, geologic factors controlling the yield. The average municipal well in consolidated rocks yields about 30 gpm. In contrast, the sands of the Coastal Plain, in the eastern part of the basin, furnish as much as 500 gpm to individual wells, and ground-water conditions are generally similar throughout that region. A cumulative deficiency in rainfall from 1953 to 1955, has caused ground-water levels to fall below the seasonal averages, but the decline is thought not to indicate a long-term trend. The most serious problem involving future use of ground water is the lack of knowledge of the characteristics of the ground-water provinces in the basin.\r\n\r\nGenerally the chemical quality of the surface waters in the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin is good. They are low in mineral matter and soft, although some of the surface water contains excessive quantities of iron. In some local areas the streams have been polluted by municipal and industrial wastes. During periods of high runoff many of the streams transport large quantities of suspended sediment. Tributary streams in the lower eastern part of the basin are highly colored because of drainage from swampy areas.\r\n\r\nGround water from the consolidated rocks in the Piedmont region is more variable in quality than water from other areas in the basin. The dissolved solids in water from the consolidated rocks ranged from 26 to 1,480 ppm with a median of 109 ppm. Wells in the Cretaceous clay province normally yield slightly acid waters. The pH ranges from 4.7 to 7.7 with a median of 5.3. Generally ground water in this province is extremely soft and low in dissolved solids. Wells in the Cretaceous sand province yield a sodium bicarbonate type of water ranging in hardness from 2 to 130 ppm.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wsp1415","usgsCitation":"Fish, R.E., LeGrand, H.E., and Billingsley, G., 1957, Water resources of the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin, North Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1415, Report: viii, 112 p.; 4 Plates: 15.50 x 15.78 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1415.","productDescription":"Report: viii, 112 p.; 4 Plates: 15.50 x 15.78 inches or smaller","costCenters":[{"id":13634,"text":"South Atlantic Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":26419,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1415/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":137518,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1415/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26422,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1415/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26418,"rank":2,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1415/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26420,"rank":4,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1415/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":26421,"rank":5,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1415/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":410738,"rank":7,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_24369.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"country":"United States","state":"North Carolina, Virginia","otherGeospatial":"Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -78.57421875,\n 33.87041555094183\n ],\n [\n -77.98095703125,\n 33.742612777346885\n ],\n [\n -77.54150390625,\n 33.96158628979907\n ],\n [\n -78.11279296875,\n 34.50655662164561\n ],\n [\n -78.77197265625,\n 34.903952965590065\n ],\n [\n -78.92578124999999,\n 35.55010533588552\n ],\n [\n -79.47509765625,\n 36.27970720524017\n ],\n [\n -79.56298828125,\n 36.56260003738545\n ],\n [\n -79.73876953125,\n 36.98500309285596\n ],\n [\n -80.15625,\n 36.77409249464195\n ],\n [\n -81.14501953125,\n 36.26199220445664\n ],\n [\n -81.67236328125,\n 36.26199220445664\n ],\n [\n -82.1337890625,\n 35.7286770448517\n ],\n [\n -81.76025390625,\n 35.7286770448517\n ],\n [\n -81.05712890625,\n 35.37113502280101\n ],\n [\n -80.79345703125,\n 34.79576153473033\n ],\n [\n -79.65087890624999,\n 34.813803317113155\n ],\n [\n -78.57421875,\n 33.87041555094183\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49e5e4b07f02db5e6f7c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Fish, Robert Eugene","contributorId":73982,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fish","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"Eugene","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143604,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"LeGrand, H. E.","contributorId":54571,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"LeGrand","given":"H.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143603,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Billingsley, G. A.","contributorId":33694,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Billingsley","given":"G. A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143602,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":55775,"text":"ofr5761 - 1957 - Water levels in observation wells in Nebraska during 1956","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-05-21T08:33:18","indexId":"ofr5761","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"57-61","title":"Water levels in observation wells in Nebraska during 1956","docAbstract":"

The Objective of the observation-well program in Nebraska is to\nprovide an evaluation of the status of the ground-water supplies.\nMany uses tor water-level data are known but not all potential uses\ncan be foreseen. Among the important uses are the following:

\n
\n

(1) To indicate the status of ground water in storage or in\ntransit and the availability or supplies.

\n
\n

(2) To show the trend of ground-water supplies and the outlook\ntor the future.

\n
\n

(3) To estimate or forecast the base flow of streams.

\n
\n

(4) To indicate areas in which the water level is approaching\ntoo close to the land surface (water-logging) or is receding toward\neconomic limits of lift or toward impairment by water of poor quality.

\n
\n

(5) To provide long-term evidence for evaluating the effectiveness\nof land-management and water-conservation programs in relation to\nwater conservation actually effected, and for use in basin or \"watershed\"\nstudies.

\n
\n

(6) To provide long-term continuous records to serve as a framework\nto which short-term records collected during intensive investigation may be related.

\n
\n

The water level in an observation well functions as a gage to\nindicate the position or the water table. The water table is defined\nas the upper surface of the zone of saturation except where that\nsurface is formed by overlying impermeable materials. The water\ntable is also the boundary between the zone of saturation and the\nzone of aeration. It is not a level surface but is a sloping surface\nthat has many irregularities, and it often conforms in a general way\nto the land surface. The irregularities are caused by several\nfactors. In places where the recharge to the ground-water reservoir\nis exceptionally large, the water table may rise to form a mound from\nwhich the water slowly spreads. Depressions or troughs in the water\ntable indicate places where the ground water is discharging, u along\nstreams that are below the normal level it the water table, or\nindicate places where water is being withdrawn by wells or vegetation.

\n
\n

The several factors that influence the water table vary in fact\nand amount from time to time because of changes in weather and the\nwater requirements or vegetation and man; thus, the water table is\nnearly always rising or falling.

\n
\n

The fluctuations or the water table are shown by the changes in\nwater levels in wells. Thus, the rate and amount of the fluctuation\nof the water table can be ascertained by observing the water levels\nin wells, and the magnitude or the several factors effecting the\nposition of the water table can be interpreted by analyzing the water-level\ndata.

\n
\n

Water-level measurements are given, in this report, in feet\nbelow the land surface at the well site. Water levels that are above\nland surface are preceded by a plus (+) sign in the tables, whereas\nthose below land surface have no sign but are understood to be minus\n(-). The words \"land-surface datum\" are abbreviated \"lsd'' in some\nplaces in tables of this report.

\n
\n

The altitude above mean sea level (msl) of the land surface at\nmany of the well sites has been determined and is included in the\ntables or this report.

\n
\n

Twenty-eight observation wells in Nebraska are equipped with\nrecording gages. Each recording gage produces a continuous graph\nof water-level fluctuations in the well. Only the lowest water level\non the last day of record in each month, as recorded by the gage, is\ngiven in this report; the complete record is on file in the office of\nthe U.S. Geological Survey in Lincoln, Nebr.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr5761","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Conservation and Survey Division of the University of Nebraska, and as part of the program of the Department of the Interior for development of the Missouri River Basin","usgsCitation":"Keech, C., 1957, Water levels in observation wells in Nebraska during 1956: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 57-61, ix, 123 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5761.","productDescription":"ix, 123 p.","numberOfPages":"133","temporalStart":"1956-01-01","temporalEnd":"1956-12-31","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":287387,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":287386,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1957/0061/report.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Nebraska","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -104.0535,39.9999 ], [ -104.0535,43.0017 ], [ -95.3083,43.0017 ], [ -95.3083,39.9999 ], [ -104.0535,39.9999 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a08e4b07f02db5f9dcd","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Keech, C.F.","contributorId":67941,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Keech","given":"C.F.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254226,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1222,"text":"wsp1460C - 1957 - Ground-water possibilities south of the Snake River between Twin Falls and Pocatello, Idaho","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2013-11-26T10:52:05","indexId":"wsp1460C","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1460","chapter":"C","title":"Ground-water possibilities south of the Snake River between Twin Falls and Pocatello, Idaho","docAbstract":"

The Snake River Plain and tributary valleys south of the Snake River between\nTwin Falls and Pocatello, Idaho (here called the South Side area), contain about\n180,000 acres of irrigated land, of which 145,000 acres is irrigated with surface\nwater and 35,000 is irrigated wholly or partly with ground water. The area also\ncontains more than 200,000 acres of arable land that is idle or used only for grazing\nbecause it lacks irrigation water. Most of the surface-water supply is already\nused or reserved, and some land now irrigated needs supplemental water.

\n
\n

The climate of the area ranges from semiarid on the Snake River Plain to\nsubhumid on higher mountains. The average annual precipitation at lowland\nstations ranges from about 9 to 12 inches.

\n\n

The principal sources of ground water are extrusive volcanic rocks of silicic\nto intermediate composition, basalt, and sand and gravel. Ground water occurs\ncommonly under artesian conditions in the silicic to intermediate volcanic rocks\nand in sand and gravel tongues and lenses in lake beds. Basalt and alluvium\ncommonly contain unconfined water.

\n
\n

The area of this report is divided into 13 roughly defined ground-water districts,\nsome of which are further divided into subdistricts. The known geologic\nand hydrologic factors of each area are summarized and a preliminary appraisal\nis made of the ground-water resources in relation to land resources and to the\nregimen of streams. The current state of development, proposed new developments,\nand ground-water potential of each division are discussed.

\n
\n

The Dry Creek district is the most intensively irrigated area in Idaho in which\nwells furnish the water supply. Ground water occurs under both artesian and\nwater-table conditions. More than 53,000 acre-feet of ground water was pumped\nin 1954. There are large areas of undeveloped arable land in the district, but\npumping in some parts of the district currently is approaching or surpasses the\nperennial yield of the ground-water reservoirs.

\n
\n

The Golden Valley district contains considerable arable land but, owing to\nthe relatively great depth to water and the generally poor yield of wells, the\nprospects for extensive ground-water development are not promising.

\n
\n

In the Oakley district ground water is pumped from alluvium to supplement\nsurface water and to bring new land into production. The ground water will be\nfully exploited within a few years if the present rate of development by individual\nlandowners continues. The total area of nonirrigated land far exceeds the amount\nthat could be irrigated with indigenous ground water.

\n
\n

Both artesian and unconfined water occur in the Burley district. Most existing\nwells tap unconfined water in the southern part where there are still large\ntracts of idle arable land. Pumping lifts are rather high.

\n
\n

The South Walcott district contains a considerable acreage of arable land and\nis underlain by excellent aquifers. The effect that heavy pumping would have\non the flow of the Raft and Snake Rivers and on seepage from Lake Walcott is\nTaot well understood. Presumably substantial pumping would be feasible without\ndirect deleterious effects.

\n
\n

The Raft River basin, including the Elba and Almo-Yost subbasins, is the\nlargest district in the South Side area. Ground water occurs in both unconfined\nand artesian aquifers. Possibly as much as 150,000 acres of dry land is irrigable,\nbut the ground-water supply presumably is sufficient to irrigate only a few thousand\nacres in addition to the approximately 40,000 now irrigated with surface\nand ground water. Pumping of wells at some locations would deplete the base\nflow of the Raft River and would be competitive with surface-water use.

\n
\n

The United States Bureau of Reclamation has started construction of the\nMichaud Flats Irrigation Project in the Western Michaud Flats district. The\nadopted reclamation plan is to irrigate about 10,000 acres, using surface water\npumped from American Falls Reservoir and ground water pumped from wells.\nGround water in part of the district is tributary to the reservoir. Withdrawals\nof ground water will be compensated in part by the return of waste water to the\nreservoir and to the Snake River.

\n
\n

The Eastern Michaud Flats district contains more arable land and has better\naquifers than the Western Michaud Flats district, but pumping might reduce\nnoticeably the discharge of ground water to the American Falls Reservoir. The\nBureau of Indian Affairs plans to develop about 13,600 acres of Indian land with\nwater stored in Palisades and American Falls Reservoirs.

\n
\n

Virtually nothing is known about ground-water conditions in the Arbon and\nRockland Valleys and in several small areas such as the Basin district, the\nAlbion basin, and along the northern border of the Sublett Range. Preliminary\nstudies have been made in three areas, the Dry Creek, Raft River, and Western.\nMichaud Flats districts. None has been studied comprehensively. The available\ndata for each district are summarized in tabular form.

\n
\n

Further investigations in the area are needed and should include accurate\nhydrologic mapping. Studies are needed of the sources and amounts of groundwater\nrecharge, of the effects of ground-water withdrawals on the total water\nsupply, and of numerous related problems.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1460C","collaboration":"Prepared for the United States Bureau of Reclamation with the cooperation of the Idaho Department of Reclamation","usgsCitation":"Crosthwaite, E., 1957, Ground-water possibilities south of the Snake River between Twin Falls and Pocatello, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1460, iv, 47 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1460C.","productDescription":"iv, 47 p.","startPage":"99","endPage":"145","numberOfPages":"51","costCenters":[{"id":343,"text":"Idaho Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":137892,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1460c/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26138,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1460c/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Idaho","city":"Pocatello;Twin Falls","otherGeospatial":"Snake River Plain","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -117.2681,41.9677 ], [ -117.2681,44.9959 ], [ -110.9949,44.9959 ], [ -110.9949,41.9677 ], [ -117.2681,41.9677 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa8e4b07f02db66744f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Crosthwaite, E. G.","contributorId":83098,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Crosthwaite","given":"E. G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143395,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70174078,"text":"70174078 - 1957 - Drainage areas of Iowa streams","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-07-23T17:34:34.200527","indexId":"70174078","displayToPublicDate":"1960-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":2,"text":"State or Local Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5105,"text":"Iowa Highway Research Board Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":2}},"seriesNumber":"7","title":"Drainage areas of Iowa streams","docAbstract":"

The drainage area of a stream at a specified location ordinarily may be defined as that area, measured in a horizontal plane, which is enclosed by a topographic divide such that direct surface runoff from precipitation would drain by gravity into the river basin above the specified point.

\n

One of the most important factors in the hydrologic computation for the design of structures on or over watercourses is the drainage area upstream from the point under consideration. Other hydrologic studies such as low-flow, flood-frequency analyses, rainfall-runoff correlations, stream density, and area-distance make use of this factor as a basic premise for computation.

\n

In order that the drainage-area information of the interior streams of Iowa be of uniform accuracy and available to all users of these data, this report has been compiled, and the drainage areas of all streams in excess of 5 square mies are listed. For the larger streams, drainage areas have been determined at numerous intermediate points. As a result of this report much basic background material has been compiled that will he useful in future hydrologic studies of drainage basin characteristics.

\n

This publication is limited to the presentation of the drainage-area data for the interior streams of the State. The methods of application of these data to the study of streamflow characteristics, and the design of related structures are properly the function of the design engineer and are not discussed herein.

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Turkey is in a state of transition from an agricultural and pastoral economy to an economy that combines agriculture and industry. Such a transition includes use of water resources for water power, irrigation, manufacturing, and domestic uses. The control of streams for multiple purposes invariably leads to conflicts of interest. Several Turkish streams rise in or flow into other countries. For these reasons, data on the flow of streams over a fairly long period of time are needed in order to plan the most beneficial use and control of the streams of Turkey.

This report deals largely with the collection of surface water data. The need for data on suspended sediment is considered briefly. In some areas of Turkey ground-water resources are now being studied by a team of Turkish and American geologists and engineers.

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N.","contributorId":36806,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Phillips","given":"K.","email":"","middleInitial":"N.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":757084,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":39149,"text":"pp288 - 1956 - Surficial geology and geomorphology of Potter County, Pennsylvania","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-03-31T20:22:47.985301","indexId":"pp288","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"288","title":"Surficial geology and geomorphology of Potter County, Pennsylvania","docAbstract":"

Potter County is located in the Appalachian Plateaus of north-central Pennsylvania and contains the headwaters of the Genesee River, the Allegheny River, and the Susquehanna River. Drift of Wisconsin age covers the northeastern part of the county. This study includes a detailed survev of the surficial deposits of the Genesee quadrangle in north-central Potter County and a reconnaissance of the remainder of the county; a soil survey and a botanical survey were carried on concurrently. The region is a deeply dissected plateau having extensive areas of steeply sloping land separated by narrow ridges and valleys; there is very little level land. Near the junction of the three watersheds the uplands rise to altitudes of more than 2,500 feet. The maximum relief in the Susquehanna drainage is more than 1,500 feet; in the Genesee and Allegheny drainage it. is about 800 feet. Valley walls are steep (15° to 30°), and the uplands have gentle slopes (0.5° to 10°). The drainage pattern is trellised. The climate is continental. Temperatures range from about -30° F. to more than 100° F. The average annual precipitation ranges approximately from 34 to 42 inches. Floods may occur at any season of the year. The large volumes of water from rain or melting snow carried by small streams come from springs. There is little precise data on frost in the ground, but it is probable that the ground seldom freezes in forested areas. The soils of Potter County have relatively immature profiles with poorly developed horizons that commonly have many characteristics inherited from their parent materials. At the great soil group level, the zonal soils are divided into Podzol soils and Brown Podzolic soils. Many soils have a high silt content in the upper part of the profile, apparently derived (at least partly) from a mantle of eolian silt. Mos~ of Potter County is covered by second-growth forests consisting of 40- to 60-year-old hardwood stands. The present forests growing on slopes and summits are composed approximately of 25 species of trees. The northern hardwood region includes most of the county, with an oak-forest region near the borders, principally along its southern margin. Potter County is underlain by sandstone, siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and minor amounts of coal and calcareous rock that range in age from Late Devonian to Pennsylvanian. These rocks form broad open folds that strike northeast. South of the border of the Wisconsin drift, and possibly at two localities inside the drift border, are scattered remnants of ancient soils (here called paleosol), that were formed in preWisconsin time-probably during the Sangamon interglacial stage. This paleosol ranges in texture from clay loam to silt loam, ranges in color from yellowish red to red, includes a few percent to more than 25 percent of rock fragments, and apparently contains a small percentage of gibbsite and varying amounts of kaolinite. Known thicknesses range from 1 to 33 feet. Paleosol was developed on diverse kinds of parent material, such as till, stratified drift, colluvium, and residuum, at altitudes ranging from a few hundred to 2,400 feet. The climatic conditions under which the paleosol formed are uncertain; however, these ancient soils may record an episode of subtropical climatic conditions during which lateritic soils were formed. Perhaps these soils are analogous to the Red-Yellow Podzolic soils of southeastern United States. Except for one possible remnant, no pre-Wisconsin drift has been recognized in Potter County. The Wisconsin glacial deposits of Potter County belong to either the Iowan or Tazewell substages and are dominantly till with minor amounts of glaciofluvial deposits. Erratics of igneous or metamorphic rock comprise less than 0.1 percent of the total number of rock fragments. The till is slightly weathered to depths ranging from 3 to about 12 feet. The drift border is indefinite and has been drawn at the southern limit of erratics or well-rounded or striated pebbles and is only locally marked by a terminal moraine or by a distinct change in the surficial deposits. The drift border is relatively straight and crosses the Genesee quadrangle in a northwesterly direction with little regard for the major topographic features, thus suggesting that the Wisconsin ice sheet had a relatively straight and steep front. Over most of the unglaciated part of Potter County, the bedrock is concealed beneath rubble that probably was formed during the Iowan or Tazewell substage, almost contemporaneously with the adjacent drift. In general, the rubble is thickest and most extensive within about 10 miles of the drift border, becoming thinner and less continuous farther away. The apparent parallelism between a belt of thick periglacial deposits and the drift border suggests that the deposits result from climatic factors in operation while the Wisconsin ice sheet was nearby. Ancient soil structures or patterned ground occur at, or near, the surface of both the periglacial deposits and the adjacent drift. These ancient soil structures are so similar to modern forms in arctic or alpine environments that they are considered to be the result of vigorous frost action. Many of the structures are believed to be a result of down-slope movement of debris by solifluction, facilitated by a frozen subsoil as much as 10 feet deep. Perennially frozen ground may have been present, but this is not a prerequisite. The periglacial deposits underlie long smooth slopes that extend from ridge crest to valley bottom. Flood plains are absent near the headwaters of many streams, the valley walls forming a V-shaped profile. While frost action was in progress, forests probably were restricted to flood plains, lower slopes, and scattered upland areas. Large parts of the upland were bare or partly covered by tundra vegetation; elsewhere, there were scattered trees but no dense forest. 1 2 SURFICIAL GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF POTTER COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA Recent alluvium and alluvial fans include sand and sandy loams, 1 to 3 feet thick, that overlie gravel. The alluvium contains organic matter and lenses of finer materials. Thickness ranges from a few to more than 100 feet. Along the principal streams the alluvium probably overlies Pleistocene deposits. Most of the alluvial fans are composed of unstratified rubbly, pebbly, cobbly. or bouldery sandy loams to silty clay loams with local lenses of stratified sand and gravel. The alluvial fans mapped in the Genesee quadrangle probably include both Wisconsin stage and Recent deposits. The summits of the A.ppalachian Plateaus in north-central Pennsylvania have long been recognized as the remnants or traces of one or more peneplains. To test this hypothesis, a restored contour map was prepared to show the configuration of a supposed peneplain on the assumption that the plateau tops are remnants of such an old erosion surface. The restored contours delineate a surface that corresponds roughly to rock structure. In general, the uplands slope parallel to the dip of the bedrock. The major streams, such as the West Branch Susquehanna River, cross the ridges and valleys of the restored surface in such a way that it is difficult to suppose that the restored surface was ever graded to these streams. On the contrary, it is probable that the restored surface never existed and that the plateau tops are structurally controlled surfaces held up by sandstone and conglomerate beds in the Pottsville and Pocono formations. The plateau tops may have been lowered by erosion as much as 200 feet during the Pleistocene-in other words, after the major streams were incised. If this portion of the Appalachian Plateaus was ever reduced to a peneplain, such a hypothetical surface must have lain many hundreds of feet above the uplands of the present day. The only alternative that might involve peneplanation is the improbable hypothesis that the plateau tops are remnants of a slightly deformed peneplain and that the peneplain was folded along the axes of the Appalachian orogeny. This remote possibility is not supported by any known evidence. The geomorphic analysis yields no new data on the origin of the cross-axial drainage. Regardless of whether the plateaus are peneplain remnants or are structurally controlled surfaces, the beginning of the major southeastward-flowing streams long antedates the existing landscape. The geomorphic history of Potter County begins with an assumed long interval of erosion during the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic eras, for which no record remains in this area. The southeast master drainage was established by the latter part of the Tertiary period (perhaps at a much earlier date), probably as the result of the northwestward migration of the Atlanticinterior divide. In late Pliocene(?) time, areas adjacent to parts of the West Branch Susquehanna River-and probably elsewhere-had a moderate relief ranging from 300 to 700 feet. Some segments of the West Branch meandered across a broad valley that lay about 900 feet above the present streams. The landscape probably was covered by deep residual soils, perhaps by saprolite. The early Pleistocene history of Potter County is essentially unknown. No deposits of the Kansan stage are known except for a possible trace of pre-Illinoian drift on the uplands in central Potter County (Ayers Hill quadrangle). Some deposits in central and eastern Pennsylvania may be of Kansan age. It is probable that the assumed Aftonian regolith was removed by mass movements and other processes during the Kansan stage, thus resulting in a lowering of the plateau tops by as much as 10 feet. By the close of the Yarmouth(?) interglacial stage the major streams were incised to essentially their present depths. The climates of the Yarmouth interglacial stage probably produced deep residual soils over the landscape, parts of which may still be preserved in the paleosol remnants of the present day. No Illinoian drift is known in Potter County, but drift assigned to this stage occurs in areas to the northwest and to the southeast. Some valleys, such as Kettle Creek valley, were filled with sand and gravel alluvium to depths of as much as 150 feet above their present flood plains. It is assumed that the Yarmouth residual soils were removed by mass movements and other processes induced by a periglacial climate, thus lowering the plateau tops by as much as 10 feet. During the Sangamon interglacial stage, deep (10-to-20 foot) residual soils or paleosol were developed in Potter County and probably throughout much of Pennsylvania, perhaps as a result of lateritic weathering in a subtropical climate. It is possible that the paleosol was largely removed by mass movements and by running water during late Sangamon time. During either the Iowan or Tazewell substages of the Wisconsin (perhaps the Iowan), the ice sheet advanced into the northeastern part of Potter County. The drift is similar to the Olean drift (local usage). The paleosol was almost completely removed by mass movements and other processes induced· by a periglacial climate, prior to drift deposition. This removal probably resulted in a lowering of the plateau tops by as much as 10 feet since Sangamon time. Nearly contemporaneously with drift deposition, the periglacial deposits were formed by frost heaving, solifluction, and fluvial transport in areas outside the drift border. Soil structures or patterned ground were developed on both the drift and the periglacial deposits. It is probable that the forests in the periglacial area were greatly restricted and that large areas on the uplands were essentially treeless. Little is known about the history of Potter County in postOlean time. Presumably, forests completely covered the county by the onset of the next substage, during which the Binghamton drift of MacClintock and Apfel was deposited. This drift also is found in southern New York State. The formation of the alluvium and alluvial fans probably began in the Tazewell substage and continued during the Recent epoch. Since these deposits were formed there has been very little dissection. There is little, if any, difference between soils developed on periglacial deposits and soils developed on drift. The roots of fallen trees have disturbed the soil horizons, and it is unlikely that the existing soil profiles are more than 500 years old. The forested landscape of Potter County has a distinctive microrelief ranging from a few inches to a few feet of mounds and pits produced by the roots of fallen trees. Most mounds and pits range from 10 to 20 feet in length and from 6 to 15 feet in width. On level land, many mounds are oriented with their long axes trending northward, and in some areas the orientation is random. On slopes, the mounds are oriented with their long axes at right angles to the maximum slope as a result of trees falling downslope. The toppling of trees increases the permeability of surficial deposits and mixes and destroys the soil horizons. The microrelief is a factor in forest development. The toppling of trees on slopes is a significant agent of slope erosion. The process loosens, breaks up, or overturns the upper 2 to 3 feet of the forest soil, and it tends to make the surficial layer more stony and to produce features resembling soil structures.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/pp288","usgsCitation":"Denny, C.S., 1956, Surficial geology and geomorphology of Potter County, Pennsylvania: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 288, Report: v, 72 p.; 8 Plates: 28.00 × 21.01 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp288.","productDescription":"Report: v, 72 p.; 8 Plates: 28.00 × 21.01 inches or smaller","costCenters":[{"id":532,"text":"Pennsylvania Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":397957,"rank":11,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_4262.htm"},{"id":66655,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-8.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66654,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-7.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66653,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66652,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66651,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66650,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66649,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66648,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":66656,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":119376,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0288/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Pennsylvania","county":"Potter County","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[-77.7513,41.999],[-77.7031,41.9991],[-77.6884,41.9992],[-77.6096,41.9998],[-77.6077,41.9211],[-77.6076,41.9174],[-77.6076,41.9015],[-77.6063,41.8402],[-77.6057,41.8334],[-77.6056,41.8121],[-77.6056,41.8093],[-77.605,41.8007],[-77.605,41.7944],[-77.6043,41.7558],[-77.6043,41.7499],[-77.6043,41.7472],[-77.603,41.7186],[-77.603,41.6999],[-77.6017,41.6518],[-77.6017,41.6437],[-77.601,41.6128],[-77.601,41.5987],[-77.5997,41.5497],[-77.5991,41.5424],[-77.5991,41.5256],[-77.5991,41.5211],[-77.5984,41.5002],[-77.5978,41.4784],[-77.6155,41.4784],[-77.664,41.4784],[-77.6977,41.4779],[-77.6989,41.4779],[-77.7093,41.4778],[-77.7498,41.4778],[-77.7645,41.4777],[-77.7774,41.4772],[-77.8006,41.4772],[-77.8123,41.4772],[-77.8282,41.4767],[-77.8454,41.4766],[-77.8742,41.4761],[-77.903,41.476],[-77.922,41.4755],[-77.9514,41.4754],[-77.9796,41.4757],[-77.9876,41.4757],[-78.0513,41.4768],[-78.0643,41.4881],[-78.0773,41.5003],[-78.094,41.5157],[-78.0958,41.5175],[-78.0977,41.5193],[-78.1107,41.5315],[-78.1119,41.5328],[-78.1243,41.5437],[-78.1379,41.5568],[-78.1769,41.5933],[-78.1831,41.5992],[-78.1862,41.6019],[-78.1992,41.6136],[-78.2035,41.6177],[-78.2054,41.619],[-78.2048,41.625],[-78.2062,41.6967],[-78.2065,41.7875],[-78.2065,41.7925],[-78.2066,41.8029],[-78.2068,41.8197],[-78.2071,41.8479],[-78.2073,41.866],[-78.2067,41.8697],[-78.2068,41.881],[-78.2075,41.8865],[-78.2078,41.9196],[-78.2078,41.9786],[-78.2085,41.9859],[-78.2086,42],[-77.9943,41.999],[-77.9662,41.9988],[-77.8686,41.9989],[-77.7513,41.999]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Potter\",\"state\":\"PA\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ae2e4b07f02db688b69","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Denny, C. S.","contributorId":87530,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Denny","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":221043,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":39141,"text":"pp282A - 1956 - Ephemeral streams - Hydraulic factors and their relation to the drainage net","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-03-23T15:51:55","indexId":"pp282A","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"282","chapter":"A","title":"Ephemeral streams - Hydraulic factors and their relation to the drainage net","docAbstract":"

The hydraulic factors of width, depth, velocity, and suspended sediment load of ephemeral streams near Santa Fe, N. Mex., were measured during flood flow. Later, channel slope was measured. These flood-flow data, in conjunction with an analysis of drainage-basin configuration by the methods proposed by Horton, are used to determine the generalized interrelation of stream order and hydraulic variables. The method developed for determining this interrelation allows an integration of the geographic and physiographic characteristics of a drainage basin with the channel characteristics; specifically, the interrelation of the length, number, and drainage area of streams of various sizes with their respective discharge, width, depth, velocity, slope, channel roughness, and suspended-sediment load.

","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Physiographic and hydraulic studies of rivers (Professional Paper 282)","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington D.C.","doi":"10.3133/pp282A","usgsCitation":"Leopold, L.B., and Miller, J.P., 1956, Ephemeral streams - Hydraulic factors and their relation to the drainage net: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 282, iv, 37 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp282A.","productDescription":"iv, 37 p.","numberOfPages":"42","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":338217,"rank":5,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp282D","linkHelpText":"Professional Paper 212-D: Flow resistance in sinuous or irregular channels"},{"id":338216,"rank":4,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp282C","linkHelpText":"Professional Paper 212-C: River flood plains: Some observations on their formation"},{"id":119372,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0282a/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":66640,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0282a/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":338215,"rank":3,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp282B","linkHelpText":"Professional Paper 212-B: River channel patterns: Braided, meandering, and straight"}],"country":"United States","state":"New Mexico","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -107,\n 36\n ],\n [\n -105.5,\n 36\n ],\n [\n -105.5,\n 35\n ],\n [\n -107,\n 35\n ],\n [\n -107,\n 36\n \n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a13e4b07f02db602146","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Leopold, Luna Bergere","contributorId":93884,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Leopold","given":"Luna","email":"","middleInitial":"Bergere","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":221029,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Miller, John P.","contributorId":33696,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miller","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":221030,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":51916,"text":"ofr5670 - 1956 - Water levels in observation wells in Nebraska during 1955","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-11-08T15:42:49","indexId":"ofr5670","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"56-70","title":"Water levels in observation wells in Nebraska during 1955","docAbstract":"

The objective of the dbservation-well program in Nebraska is to provide an evaluation of the status of the ground-water supplies. Many uses for water-.level data are known but not all potential uses can be forseen. Among the important uses are the following:

  1. To indicate the status of ground water in storage or in transit and the availability of supplies.
  2. To show the trend of ground-water supplies and the outlook for the future.
  3. To estimate or forcast the base flow of streams.
  4. To indicate areas in which the water level is approaching too close to the land surface (water-logging) or is receding toward economic limits of lift or tow rd impairment by water of poor quality.
  5. To provide long-term vidence for evaluating the effectiveness of land-management and water...0 nservation programs in relation to water conservation actually of ected, and for use in basin or \"watershed\" studies.
  6. To provide longterm ontinuous records to serve as a framework to which short-term records collected during intensive investigation may be related.

The water level in an observation well functions as a gage to indicate the position of the water table o The water table is defined as the upper surface of the zone of saturation except where that surface is formed by overlying impermeable materials. The water table is also the boundary between the zone of saturation and the zone of aeration. It is not a level surface but is a sloping surface that has many irregularities, and it often conforms in a general way to the land surface. The irregularities are caused by several factors. In places where the recharge to the ground-water reservoir is exceptionally large, the water-table may rise to form a mound from which the water slowly spreads. Depressions or troughs in the water table indicate places where the ground water is discharging, as along streams that are below the normal level of the water table, or indicate places where water is being withdrawn by wells or vegetation.

The several factors that influence the water table vary in fact and amount from time to time because of changes in weather and the water requirements of vegetation and man; thus, the water table is nearly always rising or falling.

The fluctuations of the water table are shown by the changes in water levels in wells. Thus, the rate and amount of the fluctuation of the water table can be ascertained by observing the water levels in wells, and the magnitude of the several factors effecting the position of the water table can be interpreted by analyzing the water—level data.

Water-level measurements are given, in this report, in feet below the land surface at the well site. Water levels that are above land surface are preceded by a plus (+) sign, whereas those below land surface have no sign but are understood to be minus (-). The words \"land-surface datum\" are abbreviated \"lsd\" in tables of this report.

The altitude above mean sea level (msl) of the land surface at many of the well sites has been determined and is included in the tables of this report.

Lower case letters which appear in the table of water level measurements indicate the following: 6', nearby well pumped recently; f, dry; g, measured by outside agency; and j, frozen.

Twenty-.six observation wells in Nebraska are equipped with recording gages. Each recording gage produces a continuous graph of water-level fluctuations in the well. Only the lowest water level on the last day of record in each month, as recorded by the gage, is given in this report; the complete record is on file in the office of the U. S. Geological Survey in Lincoln, Nebr.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr5670","usgsCitation":"Keech, C., 1956, Water levels in observation wells in Nebraska during 1955: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 56-70, xiv, 106 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5670.","productDescription":"xiv, 106 p.","numberOfPages":"121","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":359340,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0070/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":177432,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0070/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United 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\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a08e4b07f02db5f9c90","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Keech, C.F.","contributorId":67941,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Keech","given":"C.F.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":244472,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":51917,"text":"ofr5675 - 1956 - Surface-water resources of Polecat Creek basin, Oklahoma","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:11:34","indexId":"ofr5675","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"56-75","title":"Surface-water resources of Polecat Creek basin, Oklahoma","docAbstract":"A compilation of basic data on surface waters in Polecat Creek basin is presented on a monthly basis for Heyburn Reservoir and for Polecat Creek at Heyburn, Okla. Chemical analyses are shown for five sites in the basin.\r\nCorrelation of runoff records with those for nearby basins indicates that the average annual runoff of the basin above gaging station at Heyburn is 325 acre-feet per square mile.\r\n\r\nEstimated duration curves of daily flow indicate that under natural conditions there would be no flow in Polecat Creek at Heyburn (drainage area, 129 square miles) about 16 percent of the time on an average, and that the flow would be less than 3 cubic feet per second half of the time. As there is no significant base flow in the basin, comparable low flows during dry-weather periods may be expected in other parts of the basin.\r\n\r\nDuring drought periods Heyburn Reservoir does not sustain a dependable low-water flow in Polecat Creek. Except for possible re-use of the small sewage effluent from city of Sapulpa, dependable supplies for additional water needs on the main stem will require development of supplemental storage.\r\n\r\nThere has been no regular program for collection of chemical quality data in the basin, but miscellaneous analyses indicate a water of suitable quality for municipal and agricultural uses in Heyburn Reservoir and Polecat Creek near Heyburn. One recent chemical analysis indicates the possibility of a salt pollution problem in the Creek near Sapulpa.\r\n\r\n(available as photostat copy only)","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr5675","usgsCitation":"Laine, L., 1956, Surface-water resources of Polecat Creek basin, Oklahoma: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 56-75, 20 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5675.","productDescription":"20 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":177522,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a49e4b07f02db623d0e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Laine, L.L.","contributorId":100464,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Laine","given":"L.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":244473,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":15664,"text":"ofr56101 - 1956 - Magnetite deposits near Klukwan and Haines, southeastern Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:06:47","indexId":"ofr56101","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1956","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"56-101","title":"Magnetite deposits near Klukwan and Haines, southeastern Alaska","docAbstract":"Low-grade iron ore is found in magnetite-bearing pyroxenite bodies near Klukwan and Haines in Southeastern Alaska. An alluvial fan at Haines also contains magnetite-bearing rock of possible economic significance. \r\n\r\nThe Haines-Klukwan area is underlain by rocks of Mesozoic Including epidote diorite, quartz diorite, and alaskite of the Coast Range batholith, metabasalt (recrystallized lava flows and pyroclastic rocks), and, in the southern part, interbedded slate and limestone. Layering and foliation, where perceptible, generally strike northwest and dip steeply northeast. The iron deposits are found at or near the contact between the metabasalt and epidote diorite; they appear to represent highly-altered lava flows that were metamorphosed during the emplacement of the batholith. Several billion tens of rock containing about 13 percent magnetic iron are included in the pyroxenite body at Klukwan. Sampling and dip-needle data suggest the presence there of two or three tabular aches in which the rock has an average magnetic iron content of 20 percent or more. Pyroxenite bodies outcropping in three areas near Haines apparently are lower in grade than the Klukwan deposit; lack of exposures prevented thorough sampling but reconnaissance traverses with a dip needle failed to reveal important zones of high-grade iron ore.\r\n\r\nAn alluvial fan adjoining the pyroxenite body at Klukwan contains several hundred million tons of broken rock having a magneticiron content of about 10 percent.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr56101","usgsCitation":"Robertson, E.C., 1956, Magnetite deposits near Klukwan and Haines, southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 56-101, 37 p. ill., maps (some folded) ;27 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr56101.","productDescription":"37 p. ill., maps (some folded) ;27 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":146540,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":44627,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44628,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44629,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44630,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44631,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44632,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44633,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1956/0101/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a74e4b07f02db644465","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Robertson, Eugene C.","contributorId":71139,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Robertson","given":"Eugene","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171519,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ]}