Natural unsaturated-zone gas profiles at the U.S. Geological Survey's Amargosa Desert Research Site, near Beatty, Nevada, reveal the presence of two physically and isotopically distinct CO2 sources, one shallow and one deep. The shallow source derives from seasonally variable autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration in the root zone. Scanning electron micrograph results indicate that at least part of the deep CO2 source is associated with calcite precipitation at the 110-m-deep water table. We use a geochemical gas-diffusion model to explore processes of CO2 production and behavior in the unsaturated zone. The individual isotopic species 12CO2, 13CO2, and 14CO2 are treated as separate chemical components that diffuse and react independently. Steady state model solutions, constrained by the measured ![\"image\"](\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1029/2004WR003599/asset/equation/wrcr10149-math-0001.gif?v=1&s=28e038537ad2664695a6f7358c9ddadb5339aea0\")
δ13C (in CO2), and δ14C (in CO2) profiles, indicate that the shallow CO2 source from root and microbial respiration composes ∼97% of the annual average total CO2 production at this arid site. Despite the small contribution from deep CO2 production amounting to ∼0.1 mol m−2 yr−1, upward diffusion from depth strongly influences the distribution of CO2 and carbon isotopes in the deep unsaturated zone. In addition to diffusion from deep CO2 production, 14C exchange with a sorbed CO2 phase is indicated by the modeled δ14C profiles, confirming previous work. The new model of carbon-isotopic profiles provides a quantitative approach for evaluating fluxes of carbon under natural conditions in deep unsaturated zones.
The cataclysmic 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens radically reduced the infiltration characteristics of ∼60 000 ha of rugged terrain and dramatically altered landscape hydrology. Two decades of erosional, biogenic, cryogenic, and anthropogenic activity have modified the infiltration characteristics of much of that devastated landscape and modulated the hydrological impact of the eruption. We assessed infiltration and runoff characteristics of a segment of hillslope thickly mantled with tephra, but now revegetated primarily with grasses and other plants, to evaluate hydrological modifications due to erosion and natural turbation. Eruptive disturbance reduced infiltration capacity of the hillslope by as much as 50‐fold. Between 1980 and 2000, apparent infiltration capacities of plots on the hillslope increased as much as ten fold, but remain approximately three to five times less than the probable pre‐eruption capacities. Common regional rainfall intensities and snowmelt rates presently produce little surface runoff; however, high‐magnitude, low‐frequency storms and unusually rapid snowmelt can still induce broad infiltration‐excess overland flow. After 20 years, erosion and natural mechanical turbation have modulated, but not effaced, the hydrological perturbation caused by the cataclysmic eruption.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1002/hyp.5863","usgsCitation":"Major, J., and Yamakoshi, T., 2005, Decadal-scale change of infiltration characteristics of a tephra-mantled hillslope at Mount St Helens, Washington: Hydrological Processes, v. 19, no. 18, p. 3621-3630, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5863.","productDescription":"10 p.","startPage":"3621","endPage":"3630","numberOfPages":"10","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":238306,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":211115,"rank":2,"type":{"id":10,"text":"Digital Object Identifier"},"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5863"}],"country":"United States","state":"Washington","otherGeospatial":"Mount St Helens","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -122.4151611328125,\n 46.11322971817248\n ],\n [\n -121.97845458984375,\n 46.11322971817248\n ],\n [\n -121.97845458984375,\n 46.42271253466717\n ],\n [\n -122.4151611328125,\n 46.42271253466717\n ],\n [\n -122.4151611328125,\n 46.11322971817248\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"19","issue":"18","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059fdfee4b0c8380cd4ea65","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Major, J. J. 0000-0003-2449-4466","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2449-4466","contributorId":29461,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Major","given":"J. J.","affiliations":[{"id":157,"text":"Cascades Volcano Observatory","active":false,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":414418,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Yamakoshi, T.","contributorId":105116,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Yamakoshi","given":"T.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414419,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70029633,"text":"70029633 - 2005 - Identifying calcium sources at an acid deposition-impacted spruce forest: A strontium isotope, alkaline earth element multi-tracer approach","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-11-05T10:22:23","indexId":"70029633","displayToPublicDate":"2005-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2005","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1007,"text":"Biogeochemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Identifying calcium sources at an acid deposition-impacted spruce forest: A strontium isotope, alkaline earth element multi-tracer approach","docAbstract":"Depletion of calcium from forest soils has important implications for forest productivity and health. Ca is available to fine feeder roots from a number of soil organic and mineral sources, but identifying the primary source or changes of sources in response to environmental change is problematic. We used strontium isotope and alkaline earth element concentration ratios of trees and soils to discern the record of Ca sources for red spruce at a base-poor, acid deposition-impacted watershed. We measured 87Sr/86Sr and chemical compositions of cross-sectional stemwood cores of red spruce, other spruce tissues and sequential extracts of co-located soil samples. 87Sr/86Sr and Sr/Ba ratios together provide a tracer of alkaline earth element sources that distinguishes the plant-available fraction of the shallow organic soils from those of deeper organic and mineral soils. Ca/Sr ratios proved less diagnostic, due to within-tree processes that fractionate these elements from each other. Over the growth period from 1870 to 1960, 87Sr/86Sr and Sr/Ba ratios of stemwood samples became progressively more variable and on average trended toward values that considered together are characteristic of the uppermost forest floor. In detail the stemwood chemistry revealed an episode of simultaneous enhanced uptake of all alkaline earth elements during the growth period from 1930 to 1960, coincident with reported local and regional increases in atmospheric inputs of inorganic acidity. We attribute the temporal trends in stemwood chemistry to progressive shallowing of the effective depth of alkaline earth element uptake by fine roots over this growth period, due to preferential concentration of fine roots in the upper forest floor coupled with reduced nutrient uptake by roots in the lower organic and upper mineral soils in response to acid-induced aluminum toxicity. Although both increased atmospheric deposition and selective weathering of Ca-rich minerals such as apatite provide possible alternative explanations of aspects of the observed trends, the chemical buffering capacity of the forest floor-biomass pool limits their effectiveness as causal mechanisms.
The amount and spatial distribution of deep drainage (downward movement of water across the bottom of the root zone) and groundwater recharge affect the quantity and quality of increasingly limited groundwater in arid and semiarid regions. We synthesize research from the fields of ecology and hydrology to address the issue of deep drainage in arid and semiarid regions. We start with a recently developed hydrological model that accurately simulates soil water potential and geochemical profiles measured in thick (>50 m), unconsolidated vadose zones. Model results indicate that, since the climate change that marked the onset of the Holocene period 10 000–15 000 years ago, there has been no deep drainage in vegetated interdrainage areas and that continuous, relatively low (<−1 MPa) soil water potentials have been maintained at depths of 2–3 m. A conceptual model consistent with these results proposes that the native, xeric‐shrub‐dominated, plant communities that gained dominance during the Holocene generated and maintained these conditions. We present three lines of ecological evidence that support the conceptual model. First, xeric shrubs have sufficiently deep rooting systems with low extraction limits to generate the modeled conditions. Second, the characteristic deep‐rooted soil–plant systems store sufficient water to effectively buffer deep soil from climatic fluctuations in these dry environments, allowing stable conditions to persist for long periods of time. And third, adaptations resulting in deep, low‐extraction‐limit rooting systems confer significant advantages to xeric shrubs in arid and semiarid environments. We then consider conditions in arid and semiarid regions in which the conceptual model may not apply, leading to the expectation that portions of many arid and semiarid watersheds supply some deep drainage. Further ecohydrologic research is required to elucidate critical climatic and edaphic thresholds, evaluate the role of important physiological processes (such as hydraulic redistribution), and evaluate the role of deep roots in terms of carbon costs, nutrient uptake, and whole‐plant development.
","language":"English","publisher":"Ecological Society of America","doi":"10.1890/03-0568","usgsCitation":"Seyfried, M., Schwinning, S., Walvoord, M.A., Pockman, W., Newman, B., Jackson, R., and Phillips, F.M., 2005, Ecohydrological control of deep drainage in arid and semiarid regions: Ecology, v. 86, no. 2, p. 277-287, https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0568.","productDescription":"11 p.","startPage":"277","endPage":"287","costCenters":[{"id":465,"text":"Nevada Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":237685,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"86","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a053de4b0c8380cd50d01","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Seyfried, M.S.","contributorId":100603,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Seyfried","given":"M.S.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":421310,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schwinning, S.","contributorId":41207,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schwinning","given":"S.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":421306,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Walvoord, Michelle Ann 0000-0003-4269-8366 walvoord@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4269-8366","contributorId":147211,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Walvoord","given":"Michelle","email":"walvoord@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Ann","affiliations":[{"id":5044,"text":"National Research Program - Central Branch","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":421309,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Pockman, W. T.","contributorId":57260,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Pockman","given":"W. T.","affiliations":[{"id":7164,"text":"Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 USA","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":421308,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Newman, B.D.","contributorId":37115,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Newman","given":"B.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":421305,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Jackson, R.B.","contributorId":42174,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jackson","given":"R.B.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":421307,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Phillips, F. M.","contributorId":24493,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Phillips","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":421304,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7}]}} ,{"id":70029638,"text":"70029638 - 2005 - Development of a solenoid pumped in situ zinc analyzer for environmental monitoring","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-11-05T10:35:58","indexId":"70029638","displayToPublicDate":"2005-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2005","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":760,"text":"Analytica Chimica Acta","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Development of a solenoid pumped in situ zinc analyzer for environmental monitoring","docAbstract":"A battery powered submersible chemical analyzer, the Zn-DigiScan (Zn Digital Submersible Chemical Analyzer), has been developed for near real-time, in situ monitoring of zinc in aquatic systems. Microprocessor controlled solenoid pumps propel sample and carrier through an anion exchange column to separate zinc from interferences, add colorimetric reagents, and propel the reaction complex through a simple photometric detector. The Zn-DigiScan is capable of self-calibration with periodic injections of standards and blanks. The detection limit with this approach was 30 μg L−1. Precision was 5–10% relative standard deviation (R.S.D.) below 100 μg L−1, improving to 1% R.S.D. at 1000 μg L−1. The linear range extended from 30 to 3000 μg L−1. In situ field results were in agreement with samples analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). This pump technology is quite versatile and colorimetric methods with complex online manipulations such as column reduction, preconcentration, and dilution can be performed with the DigiScan. However, long-term field deployments in shallow high altitude streams were hampered by air bubble formation in the photometric detector.
Significant variations in interannual and decadal recharge rates are likely in alluvial basins of the semiarid southwestern United States on the basis of decadal variations in climate and precipitation and correlation of El Niño with high rates of winter precipitation and streamflow. A better understanding of the magnitude of recharge variations in semiarid and arid regions would reduce water budget uncertainty. Variability of ephemeral channel recharge with climate in southeastern Arizona was investigated through analysis of hydrologic monitoring near three ephemeral streams in southeastern Arizona during the middle to late 1990s and by relating the results to long‐term hydrologic and climatic trends. The analysis used precipitation, streamflow, water levels in wells, estimates of groundwater storage change from repeat gravity surveys, and two climatic indicators of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Southern Oscillation index, and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). Results indicate that variations in winter recharge are related to ENSO. El Niño conditions correspond with a greater probability of high rates of winter precipitation, streamflow, and recharge. La Niña conditions are almost exclusively associated with below‐average recharge. Rates of recharge along Rillito Creek near Tucson during 1977–1998, a period of frequent El Niño conditions and positive PDO values, were 3 times recharge rates during 1941–1957, a period dominated by La Niña conditions and low PDO values. Quantification of recharge variability with decadal climate cycles should improve estimates of rates of aquifer drainage and replenishment in the region. Similar methods are applicable to other regions where thick unsaturated zones can accept significant periodic recharge.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","doi":"10.1029/2004WR003255","usgsCitation":"Pool, D.R., 2005, Variations in climate and ephemeral channel recharge in southeastern Arizona, United States: Water Resources Research, v. 41, no. 11, Article W11403; 25 p., https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003255.","productDescription":"Article W11403; 25 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":489773,"rank":1,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2004wr003255","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":238456,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Arizona","volume":"41","issue":"11","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2005-11-02","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505bc179e4b08c986b32a5b7","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Pool, D. R.","contributorId":75581,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pool","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414317,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70027595,"text":"70027595 - 2005 - Management scenarios for the Jordan River salinity crisis","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-12T17:20:47","indexId":"70027595","displayToPublicDate":"2005-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2005","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":835,"text":"Applied Geochemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Management scenarios for the Jordan River salinity crisis","docAbstract":"Recent geochemical and hydrological findings show that the water quality of the base flow of the Lower Jordan River, between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea, is dependent upon the ratio between surface water flow and groundwater discharge. Using water quality data, mass-balance calculations, and actual flow-rate measurements, possible management scenarios for the Lower Jordan River and their potential affects on its salinity are investigated. The predicted scenarios reveal that implementation of some elements of the Israel-Jordan peace treaty will have negative effects on the Jordan River water salinity. It is predicted that removal of sewage effluents dumped into the river (???13 MCM/a) will significantly reduce the river water's flow and increase the relative proportion of the saline groundwater flux into the river. Under this scenario, the Cl content of the river at its southern point (Abdalla Bridge) will rise to almost 7000 mg/L during the summer. In contrast, removal of all the saline water (16.5 MCM/a) that is artificially discharged into the Lower Jordan River will significantly reduce its Cl concentration, to levels of 650-2600 and 3000-3500 mg/L in the northern and southern areas of the Lower Jordan River, respectively. However, because the removal of either the sewage effluents or the saline water will decrease the river's discharge to a level that could potentially cause river desiccation during the summer months, other water sources must be allocated to preserve in-stream flow needs and hence the river's ecosystem. ?? 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Applied Geochemistry","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","doi":"10.1016/j.apgeochem.2005.07.007","issn":"08832927","usgsCitation":"Farber, E., Vengosh, A., Gavrieli, I., Marie, A., Bullen, T., Mayer, B., Holtzman, R., Segal, M., and Shavit, U., 2005, Management scenarios for the Jordan River salinity crisis: Applied Geochemistry, v. 20, no. 11, p. 2138-2153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2005.07.007.","startPage":"2138","endPage":"2153","numberOfPages":"16","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":477953,"rank":10000,"type":{"id":41,"text":"Open Access External Repository Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2005.07.007","text":"External Repository"},{"id":238305,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":211114,"rank":9999,"type":{"id":10,"text":"Digital Object Identifier"},"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2005.07.007"}],"volume":"20","issue":"11","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a4c7fe4b0c8380cd69cdf","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Farber, E.","contributorId":31955,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Farber","given":"E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414285,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Vengosh, A.","contributorId":88925,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Vengosh","given":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414290,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Gavrieli, I.","contributorId":88134,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gavrieli","given":"I.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414289,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Marie, Amarisa","contributorId":83090,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Marie","given":"Amarisa","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414287,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Bullen, T.D.","contributorId":79911,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bullen","given":"T.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414286,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Mayer, B.","contributorId":84538,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mayer","given":"B.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414288,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Holtzman, R.","contributorId":9044,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Holtzman","given":"R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414283,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7},{"text":"Segal, M.","contributorId":104683,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Segal","given":"M.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414291,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":8},{"text":"Shavit, U.","contributorId":15807,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Shavit","given":"U.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":414284,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":9}]}} ,{"id":70029693,"text":"70029693 - 2005 - Application of wavelet analysis for monitoring the hydrologic effects of dam operation: Glen canyon dam and the Colorado River at lees ferry, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-12T17:21:06","indexId":"70029693","displayToPublicDate":"2005-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2005","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3301,"text":"River Research and Applications","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Application of wavelet analysis for monitoring the hydrologic effects of dam operation: Glen canyon dam and the Colorado River at lees ferry, Arizona","docAbstract":"Wavelet analysis is a powerful tool with which to analyse the hydrologic effects of dam construction and operation on river systems. Using continuous records of instantaneous discharge from the Lees Ferry gauging station and records of daily mean discharge from upstream tributaries, we conducted wavelet analyses of the hydrologic structure of the Colorado River in Grand Canyon. The wavelet power spectrum (WPS) of daily mean discharge provided a highly compressed and integrative picture of the post-dam elimination of pronounced annual and sub-annual flow features. The WPS of the continuous record showed the influence of diurnal and weekly power generation cycles, shifts in discharge management, and the 1996 experimental flood in the post-dam period. Normalization of the WPS by local wavelet spectra revealed the fine structure of modulation in discharge scale and amplitude and provides an extremely efficient tool with which to assess the relationships among hydrologic cycles and ecological and geomorphic systems. We extended our analysis to sections of the Snake River and showed how wavelet analysis can be used as a data mining technique. The wavelet approach is an especially promising tool with which to assess dam operation in less well-studied regions and to evaluate management attempts to reconstruct desired flow characteristics. Copyright ?? 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"River Research and Applications","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","doi":"10.1002/rra.827","issn":"15351459","usgsCitation":"White, M., Schmidt, J.C., and Topping, D., 2005, Application of wavelet analysis for monitoring the hydrologic effects of dam operation: Glen canyon dam and the Colorado River at lees ferry, Arizona: River Research and Applications, v. 21, no. 5, p. 551-565, https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.827.","startPage":"551","endPage":"565","numberOfPages":"15","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":240269,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":212735,"rank":9999,"type":{"id":10,"text":"Digital Object Identifier"},"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rra.827"}],"volume":"21","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059ecc1e4b0c8380cd49473","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, M.A.","contributorId":8312,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"M.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":423842,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schmidt, J. C.","contributorId":60245,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schmidt","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":423844,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Topping, D.J. 0000-0002-2104-4577","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2104-4577","contributorId":53927,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Topping","given":"D.J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":423843,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ]}