Soils at an active oil production site with a history of surface releases of produced water were investigated to determine the chemical signature of salt contamination and the spatial distribution of soil salinity in relation to areas of obvious salt scarring. Grab samples of shallow soil (0-15 cm) and selected soil profiles to depths of 0.6 to 1.7 m were collected onsite and offsite using a 5-cm diameter stainless steel soil auger. Air dried and disaggregated soil from 15 cm intervals (100 g) was mixed with 100 ml of distilled-deionized water to dissolve readily soluble salts. After 24 hours the water was separated by centrifugation followed by filtration through a 0.45 micrometer membrane. Specific conductance was measured immediately. Dissolved chloride (Cl) and sulfate (SO4) were initially estimated with Cl titration strips and turbidimetric measurements respectively. More accurate measurements of dissolved Cl, SO4, and bromide (Br) were later performed by ion chromatography. Brine-contaminated soil was indicated by (1) unusually elevated Cl concentrations or relatively low ratios of conductance/Cl in aqueous leachates compared to leachates of uncontaminated soils, and (2) ratios of Cl/Br in leachates (250± 30) that fall within the range of Cl/Br ratios measured in local produced waters (220-320). Leachates of background soils from the area were characterized by low conductance (sandy soils) or dissolved solids dominated by sulfates (shaley soils). At the study site, the surface (0-15 cm) distribution of elevated soil salinity was largely confined to areas of obvious salt scarring. Within the area of salt scars, elevated salinity persisted to depths of refusal by manual augering. The technique will be applied to deeper samples obtained by mechanical augering or direct push techniques.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"9th International Petroleum Environmental Conference","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"9th International Petroleum Environmental Conference","conferenceDate":"October 22-25, 2002","conferenceLocation":"Albuquerque, New Mexico","language":"English","publisher":"Integrated Petroleum Environmental Consortium","usgsCitation":"Zielinski, R.A., Rice, C.A., and Otton, J.K., 2002, Use of soil leachates to define the extent of brine-contaminated soils at the USGS petroleum environmental research site \"B\", Osage County, northeastern Oklahoma, in 9th International Petroleum Environmental Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, October 22-25, 2002.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":380748,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Oklahoma","county":"Osage 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Robert A. 0000-0002-4047-5129 rzielinski@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4047-5129","contributorId":1593,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zielinski","given":"Robert","email":"rzielinski@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":164,"text":"Central Energy Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":805510,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Rice, Cynthia A.","contributorId":87140,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rice","given":"Cynthia","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":805511,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Otton, James K. jkotton@usgs.gov","contributorId":1170,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Otton","given":"James","email":"jkotton@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[{"id":164,"text":"Central Energy Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":805512,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70216507,"text":"70216507 - 2002 - Environmental impacts of petroleum production: Fate of inorganic and organic chemicals in produced water from the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research sites, Osage County, Oklahoma","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-25T13:30:17.330683","indexId":"70216507","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T12:05:10","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"title":"Environmental impacts of petroleum production: Fate of inorganic and organic chemicals in produced water from the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research sites, Osage County, Oklahoma","docAbstract":"About 15 scientists from the U. S. Geological Survey, other Federal agencies and academia are involved in a multidisciplinary investigation to study the transport, fate, and natural attenuation of inorganic salts, trace metals, radionuclides and organic compounds present in produced water, and their impacts on soil, surface and ground water and the local ecosystem at the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research (OSPER) A and B sites, located in Osage County, OK. The Branstetter lease, OSPER B site, is typical of many aging petroleum fields in Osage County, which ranks among the top oil and gas producing counties in Oklahoma with close to 40,000 wells. Current production in Osage County is mainly from stripper wells (averaging ~2.8 bbls/d oil and >30 bbls/d brine) that are shallow, mostly 300-700 m in depth, and produce from several sandstones of Pennsylvanian age. About one hectare of land at the OSPER B site is affected by salt scarring, soil salinization and brine and petroleum contamination due to the leakage of produced water and associated hydrocarbons from two brine pits and due to accidental releases from active tank batteries. Eventually, the bulk of inorganic salts and some dissolved organic species in the released brine reach, directly or via the two local streams, the adjacent Skiatook Lake, a 4250-hectare reservoir that provides drinking water to the local communities and is a major recreational fishery.
About 40 water samples were obtained from several oil wells at the B site and adjoining areas, the two brine pits, several brine pools and seeps in the impacted area, local streams, Skiatook Lake, and from about 20 boreholes (1-71 m deep), recently drilled and completed with slotted PVC tubing. Water level monitoring and additional sampling is continuing. Results to date show that the produced water is a high-salinity (~150,000 mg/L total dissolved solids) Na-Ca-Cl brine, with relatively high concentrations of Sr, Mg and NH4, but low amounts of SO4 and H2S. With the exception of Fe and Mn, the concentrations of trace metals are low, and the values of dissolved organics are relatively low. As the brine flows from the brine pits through the shallow eolian sand, colluvial and alluvial deposits to the streams and Skiatook Lake, it is diluted by infiltrating water from precipitation. Its chemical composition is modified by sorption, mineral precipitation/dissolution, transpiration, volatilization and oxidation/reduction reactions. Bacteria likely play an important role in many of these reactions.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"9th International Petroleum Environmental Conference","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"9th International Petroleum Environmental Conference","conferenceDate":"October 22-25, 2002","conferenceLocation":"Albuquerque, New Mexico","language":"English","publisher":"Integrated Petroleum Environmental Consortium","usgsCitation":"Kharaka, Y.K., Thordsen, J., Kakouros, E., and Abbott, M.M., 2002, Environmental impacts of petroleum production: Fate of inorganic and organic chemicals in produced water from the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research sites, Osage County, Oklahoma, in 9th International Petroleum Environmental Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, October 22-25, 2002.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":380747,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Oklahoma","county":"Osage 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Yousif K. 0000-0001-9861-8260 ykharaka@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9861-8260","contributorId":1928,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kharaka","given":"Yousif","email":"ykharaka@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":805506,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Thordsen, James J. jthordsn@usgs.gov","contributorId":3329,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thordsen","given":"James J.","email":"jthordsn@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":805509,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Kakouros, Evangelos 0000-0002-4778-4039 kakouros@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4778-4039","contributorId":2587,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kakouros","given":"Evangelos","email":"kakouros@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":37464,"text":"WMA - Laboratory & Analytical Services Division","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":805507,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Abbott, Marvin M.","contributorId":89106,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Abbott","given":"Marvin","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":805508,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70159716,"text":"70159716 - 2002 - Rocky road in the Rockies: Challenges to biodiversity","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":70159716,"text":"70159716 - 2002 - Rocky road in the Rockies: Challenges to biodiversity","indexId":"70159716","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"chapter":"8","title":"Rocky road in the Rockies: Challenges to biodiversity"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70174912,"text":"70174912 - 2002 - Rocky Mountain futures: An ecological perspective","indexId":"70174912","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"title":"Rocky Mountain futures: An ecological perspective"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70174912,"text":"70174912 - 2002 - Rocky Mountain futures: An ecological perspective","indexId":"70174912","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"title":"Rocky Mountain futures: An ecological perspective"},"lastModifiedDate":"2018-02-21T17:57:34","indexId":"70159716","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T12:00:00","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"chapter":"8","title":"Rocky road in the Rockies: Challenges to biodiversity","docAbstract":"To people worldwide, the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada represent a last bastion of nature in its purest and rawest form-unspoiled forests teeming with elk and deer stalked by mountain lions and grizzly bears; bald eagles nesting near lakes and rivers; fat, feisty native trout in rushing mountain streams; and dazzling arrays of wildflowers in lush meadows. In fact, the total biodiversity of the Rocky Mountains is considerable, with relatively high diversity in birds, mammals, butterflies, reptiles, and conifers (Ricketts et al. 1999) and with geographic variation in the flora and fauna of alpine, forest, foothill, and adjacent shortgrass prairie and shrub communities over more than 20 degrees of latitude and more than 10' of longitude.
Although the biodiversity of most North American regions has declined because of anthropogenic influences, the perception remains that the biodiversity of the Rocky Mountains is intact. This view exists in part because the Rocky Mountains are remote from urban centers, in part because so much of the land comprises protected areas such as national parks and wilderness areas, and in part because of wishful thinking-that nothing bad could happen to the biodiversity that is so much a part of the history, national self-image, legends, nature films, and movies of the United States and Canada. Despite modern technology and the homogenization and globalization of their cities and towns, at heart North Americans still regard their land as the New World, with pristine nature and untamed landscapes epitomized by the Rockies.
The reality is that the biodiversity of the Rocky Mountains has not been free of anthropogenic influences since the West was settled in the 1800s, and in fact it was altered by Native Americans for centuries prior to settlement. A number of escalating problems and consequences of management choices are currently changing Rocky Mountain ecological communities at a dizzying pace. In Order to maintain some degree of natural ecosystem processes and preserve natural biodiversity in light of these challenges, Americans and Canadians are faced with the need for intensive, hands-on management of both ecosystems and selected plant and animal populations.
In this chapter, we first discuss the primary issues regarding the biodiversity of the Rocky Mountains, including the Rocky Mountain portions of Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, British Columbia, and Alberta. Next, we survey groups of organisms to examine their status and special problems. Finally, we touch on major challenges to biodiversity that loom in the near future. Given that entire books may be written on these issues, the discussion is brief and general, but with case histories for more detailed examples.
No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Proceedings of the eighteenth Pacific Climate Workshop","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"Pacific Climate Workshop","conferenceDate":"March 18-21, 2001","conferenceLocation":"Pacific Grove, California, United States","language":"English","publisher":"Interagency Ecological Program for the San Francisco Estuary","usgsCitation":"Starratt, S.W., 2002, Diatoms as indicators of freshwater flow variation in central California, 16 p.","productDescription":"16 p.","startPage":"129","endPage":"144","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":396804,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -120.0146484375,\n 40.29628651711716\n ],\n [\n -124.56298828125001,\n 40.245991504199026\n ],\n [\n -124.07958984375001,\n 39.791654835253425\n ],\n [\n -124.01367187499999,\n 38.92522904714054\n ],\n [\n -122.76123046875,\n 37.64903402157866\n ],\n [\n -122.25585937500001,\n 36.31512514748051\n ],\n [\n -120.9375,\n 34.97600151317588\n ],\n [\n -120.673828125,\n 34.397844946449865\n ],\n [\n -120.21240234375001,\n 34.379712580462204\n ],\n [\n -116.103515625,\n 36.12012758978146\n ],\n [\n -119.970703125,\n 39.01064750994083\n ],\n [\n -120.0146484375,\n 40.29628651711716\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"West, G. J.","contributorId":288094,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"West","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":837381,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Buffaloe, L. D.","contributorId":288095,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Buffaloe","given":"L.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":837382,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2}],"authors":[{"text":"Starratt, Scott W. 0000-0001-9405-1746 sstarrat@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9405-1746","contributorId":2891,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Starratt","given":"Scott","email":"sstarrat@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":837380,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70216506,"text":"70216506 - 2002 - Produced water and hydrocarbon releases at the Osage-Skiatook petroleum environmental research sites, Osage County, Oklahoma: Introduction and geologic setting","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-25T13:30:41.924307","indexId":"70216506","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:58:03","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"title":"Produced water and hydrocarbon releases at the Osage-Skiatook petroleum environmental research sites, Osage County, Oklahoma: Introduction and geologic setting","docAbstract":"In February 2001, the USGS started studies of the impacts of produced water and hydrocarbon releases at 2 research sites adjacent to Skiatook Lake in southeastern Osage County near Tulsa, Oklahoma. Both sites are in a dissected area of modest relief underlain by interbedded shale, siltstone, and sandstone. Thicker resistant sandstone units typically form the hill crests. Hillslopes are underlain by shale, siltstone, and thin sandstone beds. Core drilling during February and March of 2002 indicates that the depth of weathering of the bedrock is about 10-25 m on the ridges and 5-6 m in small stream valleys.
These sites are located in the Cross Timbers ecosystem area of northeastern Oklahoma. Oak forests cover the hillslopes. Grassslands occur on most ridge crests.
Site \"A\" is an area where produced water and hydrocarbon releases occurred primarily 60-85 years ago. The site is located in section 13, T22N, R10E. The entire site is underlain by 1) a surface layer of eolian sand of varying thickness (maximum observed about 80 cm); 2) colluvium that ranges from large boulders of sandstone to thin, granule-pebble conglomerate; 3) weathered shale, siltstone, and sandstone; and 4) underlying unweathered bedrock. Much of the site appears to have been impacted by early salt-water releases that killed the oak forest, however a few oak trees persist as single trees or clumps of trees within the original kill area. The gently sloping upper part of the site is slightly eroded in places and has been mostly revegetated with grasses, forbs, sumac, and a few trees. The lower, steeper, more heavily salt-impacted portion has been eroded to depths of as much as 2 m. This area drains into the Cedar Creek arm of Skiatook Lake. Oil from two redwood tanks at the top of the site was transported via ditch to two roadside pits at mid-site. Oil spills from pipeline breaks and tank batteries (no longer present) are scattered around the site. Most of the oil is highly weathered however, one pit contains what appears to be relatively fresh asphaltic tank bottom material.
Site \"B\" is located in sections 29 and 32, T22N, R10E. It includes an active production tank battery and adjacent large pit, two injection well sites, one with an adjacent small pit, and an old tank battery. All of these sites are within 45 m of the shoreline of the lake (at normal pool elevation). The pit associated with the active tank battery is within 15 m of the lake. Two small creeks cross the northern and southern parts of the site. The upper part of the site is characterized by a thin surface layer of eolian sand mixed with sandstone-clast colluvium underlain by weathered and unweathered shale whereas the lower part of the site is underlain by 1) a surface layer of eolian sand (20-70 cm thick); 2) colluvial apron and alluvial deposits of varying thickness comprised of sandstone pebbles, cobbles, and boulders with a fine sand matrix; 3) weathered shale; and 4) unweathered bedrock. Three salt scars extend downslope from the active tank battery, the injection well/pit, and the old tank battery to the lake edge. The area underlain by shallow saline ground water is substantially larger than the salt-scarred areas. Dissolved hydrocarbons can be detected in the shallow ground water below the active pit.
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Introduction
Background
Study Approach
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
This chapter contains sections titled:
Introduction
Brief Summary of Modern Ostracodes in the World's Oceans
Paleoceanography Over 106-107 Year Timescales
Orbital Scale Climate Variability
Millennial Scale Climate
Centennial and Decadal Climate Trends
Future Work
This digital Magnetic Anomaly database and map for the North American continent is the result of a joint effort by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and Consejo de Recursos Minerales of Mexico (CRM). The database and map represent a substantial upgrade from the previous compilation of Magnetic Anomaly data for North America, now over a decade old (Committee for the Magnetic Anomaly Map of North America, 1987). This integrated, readily accessible, modern digital database of magnetic anomaly data will be a powerful tool for further evaluation of the structure, geologic processes, and tectonic evolution of the continent and may also be used to help resolve societal and scientific issues that span national boundaries. The North American magnetic anomaly map derived from the digital database provides a comprehensive magnetic view of continental-scale trends not available in individual data sets, helps link widely separated areas of outcrop, and unifies disparate geologic studies. This booklet outlines the data processing and compilation procedures used to produce the magnetic anomaly database and map that accompany this booklet.
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Mojave Desert inferred from fault history and physiographic evolution of the Fort Irwin area, California","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Geologic evolution of the Mojave Desert and Southwestern Basin and Range","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0-8137-1195-9.173","usgsCitation":"Miller, D., and Yount, J., 2002, Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the north-central Mojave Desert inferred from fault history and physiographic evolution of the Fort Irwin area, California, chap. of Geologic evolution of the Mojave Desert and Southwestern Basin and Range, v. 195, p. 173-197, https://doi.org/10.1130/0-8137-1195-9.173.","productDescription":"25 p.","startPage":"173","endPage":"197","costCenters":[{"id":309,"text":"Geology and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":416512,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","otherGeospatial":"Fort Irwin area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -117,\n 35.625\n ],\n [\n -117,\n 35\n ],\n [\n -116,\n 35\n ],\n [\n -116,\n 35.625\n ],\n [\n -117,\n 35.625\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"195","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Miller, David M. 0000-0003-3711-0441 dmiller@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3711-0441","contributorId":140769,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miller","given":"David M.","email":"dmiller@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":309,"text":"Geology and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":871085,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Yount, James C.","contributorId":39341,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Yount","given":"James C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":871086,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70243111,"text":"70243111 - 2002 - 36 - Implications of crustal strain during conventional, slow, and silent earthquakes","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-04-28T16:37:35.626731","indexId":"70243111","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:34:13","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5944,"text":"International Geophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"36 - Implications of crustal strain during conventional, slow, and silent earthquakes","docAbstract":"Uniform block-slip motion consistent with simple shear on locked fault segments is the primary feature apparent in geodetic measurements of strain accumulation along plate boundaries (Savage, 1983). However, almost every aspect of fault failure is nonlinear in character. This premise derives from theoretical models (Kostrov, 1966; Richards, 1976; Andrews, 1976; Freund, 1979; Rice and Rudnicki, 1979; Rice, 1983, 1992; Stuart, 1979, Stuart and Mavko, 1979; Das and Scholz, 1981; Rundle et al., 1984; Tse and Rice, 1986; Lorenzetti and Tullis, 1989; Segall and Rice, 1995; Shaw, 1997; Miller et al., 1999) and laboratory-generated frictional failure of crustal materials (Dieterich, 1979, 1981; Mogi, 1981; Mogi et al., 1982) which predict accelerating deformation will occur before dynamic slip instabilities, better known as earthquakes.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80239-X","usgsCitation":"Johnston, M., and Linde, A.T., 2002, 36 - Implications of crustal strain during conventional, slow, and silent earthquakes: International Geophysics, v. 81, no. Part A, p. 589-605, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80239-X.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"589","endPage":"605","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":416511,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"81","issue":"Part A","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Johnston, M.J.S. 0000-0003-4326-8368","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4326-8368","contributorId":104889,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Johnston","given":"M.J.S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":871083,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Linde, A. T.","contributorId":21700,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Linde","given":"A.","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":871084,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70159711,"text":"70159711 - 2002 - The northern Yellowstone elk: density dependence and climatic conditions","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2015-11-18T12:09:06","indexId":"70159711","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:30:00","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2508,"text":"Journal of Wildlife Management","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The northern Yellowstone elk: density dependence and climatic conditions","docAbstract":"We analyzed a time series of estimates of elk (Cervus elaphus) numbers on the northern Yellowstone winter range from 1964 to 1979 and 1986 to 1995 using a variety of discrete time stochastic population dynamic models. These models included adjustments for density, an increase in the area of winter range used by elk, lagged effects of the weather covariates of spring precipitation, snow depth and winter temperature, and the impacts of the 1988 drought and fires. An information-criteria-based model-selection process strongly supported evidence of density dependence. The best model, a Ricker model, distinguished between the 2 time periods. The bulk of the difference between the 2 periods is attributed to an increase in the amount of winter range used by elk. Inclusion of the covariates spring precipitation and spring precipitation squared greatly improved the model fit. We detected a short-lived increase in elk population growth rate following the 1988 drought and fires. Fertility and survivorship of adults appeared to have different density-dependent forms that together result in a biphasic relationships between population growth rate and density. This study confirms the presence of density-dependent regulation in the norther Yellowstone elk herd, and enhances our understanding of population dynamics of these ungulates.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wildlife Society","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.2307/3802877","usgsCitation":"Taper, M.L., and Gogan, P., 2002, The northern Yellowstone elk: density dependence and climatic conditions: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 66, no. 1, p. 106-122, https://doi.org/10.2307/3802877.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"106","endPage":"122","numberOfPages":"17","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":311498,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -112.17041015625,\n 43.281204464332745\n ],\n [\n -112.17041015625,\n 45.81348649679971\n ],\n [\n -108.3197021484375,\n 45.81348649679971\n ],\n [\n -108.3197021484375,\n 43.281204464332745\n ],\n [\n -112.17041015625,\n 43.281204464332745\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"66","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"564daf55e4b0112df6c62e3a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Taper, Mark L.","contributorId":105192,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Taper","given":"Mark","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":580161,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Gogan, Peter J.P.","contributorId":91205,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gogan","given":"Peter J.P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":580162,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70217737,"text":"70217737 - 2002 - Two‐step processing for 3D magnetic source locations and structural indices using extended Euler or analytic signal methods","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-01-29T17:33:19.678263","indexId":"70217737","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:28:30","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"title":"Two‐step processing for 3D magnetic source locations and structural indices using extended Euler or analytic signal methods","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"SEG technical program expanded abstracts 2002","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"SEG International Exposition and Seventy Second Annual Meeting","conferenceDate":"Oct 6-11, 2002","conferenceLocation":"Salt Lake City, UT","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Exploration Geophysicists","doi":"10.1190/1.1817359","usgsCitation":"Phillips, J., 2002, Two‐step processing for 3D magnetic source locations and structural indices using extended Euler or analytic signal methods, in SEG technical program expanded abstracts 2002, Salt Lake City, UT, Oct 6-11, 2002, p. 727-730, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1817359.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"727","endPage":"730","costCenters":[{"id":35995,"text":"Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":382816,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2012-03-22","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Phillips, Jeffrey 0000-0002-6459-2821 jeff@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6459-2821","contributorId":127453,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Phillips","given":"Jeffrey","email":"jeff@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":809429,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70243110,"text":"70243110 - 2002 - 34 - State of stress in the Earth's lithosphere","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-04-28T16:32:26.42226","indexId":"70243110","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:27:06","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5944,"text":"International Geophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"34 - State of stress in the Earth's lithosphere","docAbstract":"The state of stress in the lithosphere is the result of the forces acting upon and within it. Knowledge of the magnitude and distribution of these forces can be combined with mechanical, thermal and rheological constraints to examine a broad range of lithospheric deformational processes. For example, such knowledge contributes to a better understanding of the processes that both drive and inhibit lithospheric plate motions as well as the forces responsible for the occurrence of crustal earthquakes − both along plate boundaries and in intraplate regions.
Although the topic of this chapter is the state of stress in the Earth's lithosphere, the comments below come primarily from the perspective of the state of stress in the brittle upper crust. As defined by the depth of shallow earthquakes, the brittle crust extends to ˜15–20 km depth at most continental locations around the world. This perspective is adopted here because nearly all the data available on lithospheric stress come from the upper crust of continents. Furthermore, in the sections that follow, we argue that, to first order, the state of stress in the brittle crust results from relatively large-scale lithospheric processes so that knowledge of crustal stress can be used to constrain the forces involved in these processes.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80237-6","usgsCitation":"Zoback, M.D., and Zoback, M.L., 2002, 34 - State of stress in the Earth's lithosphere: International Geophysics, v. 81, no. Part A, p. 559-568, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80237-6.","productDescription":"10 p.","startPage":"559","endPage":"568","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":416510,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"81","issue":"Part A","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Zoback, Mark D.","contributorId":29431,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zoback","given":"Mark","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":871081,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Zoback, Mary Lou","contributorId":42668,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zoback","given":"Mary","email":"","middleInitial":"Lou","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":871082,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70242832,"text":"70242832 - 2002 - Seismicity, gas emission and deformation from 18 July to 25 September 1995 during the initial phreatic phase of the eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-04-19T16:29:46.218531","indexId":"70242832","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:23:39","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Seismicity, gas emission and deformation from 18 July to 25 September 1995 during the initial phreatic phase of the eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat","docAbstract":"On 18 July 1995, after more than three years of irregularly increasing seismicity, phreatic explosions opened a new vent on Soufrière Hills Volcano, about 4 km east of the capital city of Plymouth, Montserrat. By early August 1995, the volcano was monitored by a nine-station seismic network, three telemetered electronic tiltmeters, and daily correlation spectroscopy (COSPEC) flights to measure SO2 emission rates and to observe vent areas. Seismicity and SO2 emission rates implicated magma intrusion as the cause of the seismic unrest. Strong evidence of magma ascent to shallow levels, however, did not appear until late September 1995, when increasing numbers of hybrid events heralded the formation of a small dome and spine. We infer from the data that intrusion of a small volume of magma occurred in July, but stalled on ascent. Degassing of the stalled magma formed a carapace that thickened with time. We suggest that either volatile build-up beneath the degassed carapace, or aseismic intrusion of fresh material, finally forced the stalled magma to the surface in late September 1995. A similar cycle of activity appears to have occurred during the second phreatic phase between late September and mid-November 1995.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"The eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 1995 to 1999","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of London","doi":"10.1144/GSL.MEM.2002.021.01.26","usgsCitation":"Gardner, C.A., and White, R.A., 2002, Seismicity, gas emission and deformation from 18 July to 25 September 1995 during the initial phreatic phase of the eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, chap. of The eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 1995 to 1999, v. 21, p. 567-581, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.MEM.2002.021.01.26.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"567","endPage":"581","costCenters":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":416011,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Monserrat","otherGeospatial":"Soufrière Hills Volcano","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -62.18626214282375,\n 16.715710896994125\n ],\n [\n -62.18626214282375,\n 16.70217573894638\n ],\n [\n -62.16970770427781,\n 16.70217573894638\n ],\n [\n -62.16970770427781,\n 16.715710896994125\n ],\n [\n -62.18626214282375,\n 16.715710896994125\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"21","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-11-25","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Druitt, T. H.","contributorId":60662,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Druitt","given":"T.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":869915,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Kokelaar, B. P.","contributorId":177753,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Kokelaar","given":"B.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":869916,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2}],"authors":[{"text":"Gardner, Cynthia A. 0000-0002-6214-6182 cgardner@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6214-6182","contributorId":1959,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gardner","given":"Cynthia","email":"cgardner@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":869913,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"White, Randall A. 0000-0003-4074-8577 rwhite@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4074-8577","contributorId":1993,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Randall","email":"rwhite@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":869914,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70229422,"text":"70229422 - 2002 - Techniques for collection and study of ostracoda","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-03-07T17:37:41.682638","indexId":"70229422","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:22:12","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5371,"text":"Geophysical Monograph","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":24}},"title":"Techniques for collection and study of ostracoda","docAbstract":"This chapter contains sections titled:
Introduction
Collecting Modern Ostracoda
Sample Processing
Analysis of Ostracod Data
Culturing Ostracods
Concluding Comments
A decision support system for the management of the Rocky Mountain Population of Trumpeter Swans (Cygnus buccinators) is being developed. As part of this, three expert systems are also in development: one for assessing the quality of Trumpeter Swan breeding habitat; one for making water level recommendations in montane, palustrine wetlands; and one for assessing the contribution a particular site can make towards meeting objectives from as flyway perspective. The focus of this paper is the development of the breeding habitat expert system, which currently consists of 157 rules. Out purpose is to provide decision support for issues that appear to be beyond the capability of a single persons to conceptualize and solve. We propose that by involving multiple experts in the development and use of the systems, management will be significantly improved. The knowledge base for the expert system has been developed using standard knowledge engineering techniques with a small team of ecological experts. Knowledge was then coded using production rules organized in decision trees using a commercial expert system development shell. The final system has been deployed on the world wide web.
","language":"English","publisher":"Waterbird Society","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","usgsCitation":"Sojda, R.S., Cornely, J.E., and Howe, A.E., 2002, Development of an expert system for assessing trumpeter swan breeding habitat in the Northern Rocky Mountains.: Waterbirds, v. 25, no. 1, p. 313-318.","productDescription":"6 p.","startPage":"313","endPage":"318","numberOfPages":"6","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":311476,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":311475,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1522368?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents"}],"country":"United States","otherGeospatial":"Rocky Mountains","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -113.92822265625,\n 41.244772343082104\n ],\n [\n -113.92822265625,\n 45.42158812329091\n ],\n [\n -108.7646484375,\n 45.42158812329091\n ],\n [\n -108.7646484375,\n 41.244772343082104\n ],\n [\n -113.92822265625,\n 41.244772343082104\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"25","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"564daf48e4b0112df6c62e03","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sojda, Richard S. sojda@usgs.gov","contributorId":1663,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sojda","given":"Richard","email":"sojda@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[{"id":481,"text":"Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":580150,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Cornely, John E.","contributorId":10863,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cornely","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":580151,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Howe, Adele E.","contributorId":149954,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Howe","given":"Adele","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":580152,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70201216,"text":"70201216 - 2002 - Geographic Information Systems","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-12-11T10:09:51","indexId":"70201216","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T11:09:37","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":6,"text":"USGS Unnumbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":362,"text":"General Information Product","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":6}},"title":"Geographic Information Systems","docAbstract":"Geographic information system (GIS) technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, and development planning. For example, a GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times in the event of a natural disaster, or a GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection from pollution.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/70201216","usgsCitation":"U.S. Geological Survey, 2002, Geographic Information Systems: General Information Product, 2 Plates: 34.09 x 21.60 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/70201216.","productDescription":"2 Plates: 34.09 x 21.60 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":360138,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70201216/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":360139,"rank":2,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70201216/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":360140,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70201216/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5c10dadfe4b034bf6a7fcc61"} ,{"id":70243109,"text":"70243109 - 2002 - 32 - Rock failure and earthquakes","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-04-28T16:08:17.123942","indexId":"70243109","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:55:39","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5944,"text":"International Geophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"32 - Rock failure and earthquakes","docAbstract":"This chapter summarizes experimental observations and related theoretical developments of faulted and intact rock properties related to earthquake nucleation, failure and dynamic slip. We will be concerned primarily with earthquakes occurring in the brittle crust. Intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes have unique mechanical considerations that are discussed in Section 7. We focus on repeatable laboratory observations and their direct implications for fault strength and stability. Important results that may be new, incomplete or controversial have also been included. To distinguish the well-established findings from others, the latter appear in “new and provisional results” sections.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80235-2","usgsCitation":"Lockner, D.A., and Beeler, N.M., 2002, 32 - Rock failure and earthquakes: International Geophysics, v. 81, no. Part A, p. 505-537, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80235-2.","productDescription":"33 p.","startPage":"505","endPage":"537","costCenters":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":416508,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"81","issue":"Part A","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lockner, David A. 0000-0001-8630-6833 dlockner@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8630-6833","contributorId":567,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lockner","given":"David","email":"dlockner@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":234,"text":"Earthquake Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":871079,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Beeler, Nicholas M. 0000-0002-3397-8481 nbeeler@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3397-8481","contributorId":2682,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Beeler","given":"Nicholas","email":"nbeeler@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":234,"text":"Earthquake Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":871080,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70243107,"text":"70243107 - 2002 - 35 - Strength and energetics of active fault zones","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-04-28T15:51:31.907933","indexId":"70243107","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:49:23","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5944,"text":"International Geophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"35 - Strength and energetics of active fault zones","docAbstract":"The strength of active fault zones, i.e., the shear stress level required to cause fault slip, is fundamental to understanding the physics of earthquakes and to assessing earthquake hazard. Although many researchers have concluded that fault zones are weak (shear stresses 10 MPa or less averaged between 0 and ˜20 km depth), others maintain that faults are strong (˜100 MPa average of an approximate linear increase with depth). Thus, despite 30 y of dedicated research, relevant data remain inconclusive and fault strength remains uncertain by an order of magnitude. In part, this is because the main source of energy release in earthquakes is at depths greater than 5 km, inaccessible to direct instrumental observation. Very large earthquakes rupture to the Earth's surface where direct observation of the shallow rupture process is possible. However, the rupture characteristics at shallow depth may differ from those at seismogenic depths. To date no great (M ≥ 7.75) earthquakes have occurred within a network of modern strong-motion instruments, but the large, well-recorded 1999 earthquakes in Turkey and Taiwan, both M = 7.6, show that this data gap is rapidly being filled. Furthermore, shear stress changes at the earthquake source (and the resulting seismic waves) are nearly linear perturbations of the absolute stress field. Thus, an unknown absolute background stress does not greatly affect the basic characteristics of the observed low frequency seismic waves and the observed geodetic deformation. Other, less-direct data must then be used to infer the physical state and ambient stress levels on active faults.
This chapter discusses available evidence and current ideas about fault zone strength and energetics. In our review we begin by outlining the general physical conditions prevailing in the Earth around active faults and summarize the generally agreed upon observational features of faulting and earthquake occurrence (Section 2). In doing so we make as few assumptions as possible, because making uncertain assumptions may lead to logical inconsistencies and apparent paradoxes. For example, the absence of a measurable, frictionally generated heat flow anomaly near active faults, the so-called stress-heat flow paradox, rests upon assumptions that must somehow be incorrect. We wish to avoid such inconsistencies and to begin we introduce the observations and briefly state what they imply about fault zones. Subsequently, in Sections 3–8, we place these observations in an interpretative context and show how they have been used to infer various measures of fault shear stress. Section 9 summarizes our assessment of the average shear stress state near faults, argues for the general importance of stress heterogeneity in faulting processes, and discusses its implications.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80238-8","usgsCitation":"Brune, J.N., and Thatcher, W.R., 2002, 35 - Strength and energetics of active fault zones: International Geophysics, v. 81, no. Part A, p. 569-588, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80238-8.","productDescription":"20 p.","startPage":"569","endPage":"588","costCenters":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":416506,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"81","issue":"Part A","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Brune, James N.","contributorId":76304,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brune","given":"James","email":"","middleInitial":"N.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":871071,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Thatcher, Wayne R. 0000-0001-6324-545X thatcher@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6324-545X","contributorId":2599,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thatcher","given":"Wayne","email":"thatcher@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":871072,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70024909,"text":"70024909 - 2002 - The role of C3 and C4 grasses to interannual variability in remotely sensed ecosystem performance over the US Great Plains","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-11-23T16:55:51.570263","indexId":"70024909","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:44:52","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"title":"The role of C3 and C4 grasses to interannual variability in remotely sensed ecosystem performance over the US Great Plains","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Proceedings of the first international workshop on the analysis of multi-temporal remote sensing images","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"First International Workshop on the Analysis of Multi-temporal Remote Sensing Images","conferenceDate":"September 13-14, 2001","conferenceLocation":"Trento, Italy","language":"English","publisher":"World Scientific Publishing","usgsCitation":"Ricotta, C., Reed, B., and Tieszen, L., 2002, The role of C3 and C4 grasses to interannual variability in remotely sensed ecosystem performance over the US Great Plains, in Proceedings of the first international workshop on the analysis of multi-temporal remote sensing images, Trento, Italy, September 13-14, 2001, p. 379-386.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"379","endPage":"386","costCenters":[{"id":222,"text":"Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":409587,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505baf4ae4b08c986b3246b4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ricotta, C.","contributorId":31162,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ricotta","given":"C.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":403084,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Reed, B. C. 0000-0002-1132-7178","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1132-7178","contributorId":55594,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Reed","given":"B. C.","affiliations":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":403086,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Tieszen, L.T.","contributorId":43532,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Tieszen","given":"L.T.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":403085,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70205976,"text":"70205976 - 2002 - Late Devonian sea-level changes, catastrophic events, and mass extinctions","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-05-26T13:09:23.170885","indexId":"70205976","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:40:06","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1727,"text":"GSA Special Papers","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Late Devonian sea-level changes, catastrophic events, and mass extinctions","docAbstract":"Late Devonian history is explained through event stratigraphy comprising a sequence of 18 sea-level changes, catastrophic events, and mass extinctions. Generally rising sea level during the initial Frasnian Stage, beginning with the Taghanic onlap and ending with a sea-level fall and major mass extinction, was interrupted by several exceptionally rapid, very high rises of sea level. These rises may be related to a series of comet showers, as suggested by the coincidence of the Alamo Impact in Nevada and the older Amo¨nau Event in Germany with two of the sea-level rises. The subcritical, off-platform marine Alamo Impact is demonstrated to have produced greatly different effects in deep water from those previously recorded on the carbonate platform. The series of comet showers, most notably those around the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, evidenced by microtektites in widely separated regions, not only produced the late Frasnian mass extinction, but also induced global cooling. This cooling resulted in Southern Hemisphere glaciation. Generally falling sea level during the later Famennian Stage was interrupted by several warmer, interglacial episodes, evidenced by glacio-eustatic rises. Another, less severe mass extinction occurred during an abrupt sea-level fall near the end of the Famennian. This glacio-eustatic fall is interpreted to have resulted from a severe, terminal glacial episode. Interpretation of Late Devonian history suggests that impacts and comet showers coincided with sea-level rises, whereas mass extinctions occurred during, not at the start of, sea-level falls.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0-8137-2356-6.473","usgsCitation":"Sandberg, C., Morrow, J.R., and Ziegler, W., 2002, Late Devonian sea-level changes, catastrophic events, and mass extinctions: GSA Special Papers, v. 356, p. 473-487, https://doi.org/10.1130/0-8137-2356-6.473.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"473","endPage":"487","costCenters":[{"id":35995,"text":"Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":368300,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Germany","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[9.92191,54.9831],[9.93958,54.59664],[10.95011,54.36361],[10.93947,54.00869],[11.95625,54.19649],[12.51844,54.47037],[13.64747,54.07551],[14.11969,53.75703],[14.35332,53.24817],[14.07452,52.98126],[14.4376,52.62485],[14.68503,52.08995],[14.6071,51.74519],[15.017,51.10667],[14.57072,51.00234],[14.30701,51.11727],[14.05623,50.92692],[13.33813,50.73323],[12.96684,50.48408],[12.24011,50.26634],[12.41519,49.96912],[12.52102,49.54742],[13.03133,49.30707],[13.59595,48.87717],[13.24336,48.41611],[12.8841,48.28915],[13.02585,47.63758],[12.93263,47.46765],[12.62076,47.67239],[12.14136,47.70308],[11.42641,47.52377],[10.5445,47.5664],[10.40208,47.30249],[9.89607,47.5802],[9.59423,47.52506],[8.52261,47.83083],[8.3173,47.61358],[7.46676,47.62058],[7.59368,48.33302],[8.09928,49.01778],[6.65823,49.20196],[6.18632,49.4638],[6.24275,49.90223],[6.04307,50.12805],[6.15666,50.80372],[5.98866,51.85162],[6.5894,51.85203],[6.84287,52.22844],[7.09205,53.14404],[6.90514,53.48216],[7.10042,53.69393],[7.93624,53.7483],[8.12171,53.52779],[8.80073,54.02079],[8.57212,54.39565],[8.52623,54.96274],[9.28205,54.83087],[9.92191,54.9831]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Germany\"}}]}","volume":"356","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sandberg, Charles sandberg@usgs.gov","contributorId":199124,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sandberg","given":"Charles","email":"sandberg@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":35995,"text":"Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":773140,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Morrow, Jared R.","contributorId":65934,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Morrow","given":"Jared","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":773141,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ziegler, W.","contributorId":57614,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ziegler","given":"W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":773142,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70199478,"text":"70199478 - 2002 - Plasticity in vertical migration by native and exotic estuarine fishes in a dynamic low‐salinity zone","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-09-19T10:40:17","indexId":"70199478","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:39:31","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2620,"text":"Limnology and Oceanography","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Plasticity in vertical migration by native and exotic estuarine fishes in a dynamic low‐salinity zone","docAbstract":"We investigated the degree of flexibility in retention strategies of young fishes in the low‐salinity zone (LSZ) of the San Francisco Estuary during years of highly variable river flow. We conducted depth‐stratified sampling over three full tidal cycles in each year from 1994 to 1996. In 1994, exotic striped bass (Morone saxatilis), native longfin smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys), and exotic yellowfin goby (Acanthogobus flavimanus) migrated tidally, occurring near the surface on flood tides and near the bottom on ebb tides. This strategy may have facilitated retention, because landward residual currents were absent in this drought year. During 1995, this behavior persisted for striped bass and yellowfin goby, even though landward residual currents were present under high river‐flow conditions. In moderate river‐flow conditions (1996), longfin smelt again migrated tidally, whereas at another station adjacent to shallow bays, longfin smelt, striped bass, and native delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) migrated on a reverse diel cycle, occurring near the surface by day and at depth by night. Reverse diel migration may facilitate horizontal transport and retention. Therefore, young fishes appeared to be behaviorally flexible in different environmental conditions to maximize retention. Vertical migrations may also enhance feeding success because zooplankton prey similarly migrated in the LSZ. Our study underscores the value of interdisciplinary studies in a variety of environmental conditions to decipher the range of organism behaviors promoting transport and retention in optimal habitats.
","language":"English","publisher":"Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography, Inc.","doi":"10.4319/lo.2002.47.5.1496","usgsCitation":"Bennett, W.A., Kimmerer, W.J., and Burau, J.R., 2002, Plasticity in vertical migration by native and exotic estuarine fishes in a dynamic low‐salinity zone: Limnology and Oceanography, v. 47, no. 5, p. 1496-1507, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2002.47.5.1496.","productDescription":"12 p.","startPage":"1496","endPage":"1507","costCenters":[{"id":154,"text":"California Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":478610,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2002.47.5.1496","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":357473,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","county":"San Francisco County","city":"San Francisco","otherGeospatial":"San Francisco Estuary","volume":"47","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-09-06","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5c10f1cfe4b034bf6a80616d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Bennett, William A.","contributorId":88988,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bennett","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":745538,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Kimmerer, Wim J.","contributorId":59169,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Kimmerer","given":"Wim","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":6690,"text":"San Francisco State University","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":745539,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Burau, Jon R. 0000-0002-5196-5035 jrburau@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5196-5035","contributorId":1500,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Burau","given":"Jon","email":"jrburau@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":154,"text":"California Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":745540,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70243104,"text":"70243104 - 2002 - 38 - Electromagnetic fields generated by earthquakes","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-04-28T15:34:12.842041","indexId":"70243104","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:13:40","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5944,"text":"International Geophysics","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"38 - Electromagnetic fields generated by earthquakes","docAbstract":"Independent knowledge of the physical processes that occur with seismic events can be obtained from observations of electric and magnetic fields generated by these complex processes. During the past few decades, we have seen a remarkable increase in the quality and quantity of electromagnetic (EM) data recorded before and during earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This paper describes the most significant recent data and the implications these data have for different generating mechanisms. We note that, despite several decades of relatively high quality monitoring, clear demonstration of the existence of precursory EM signals has not been achieved, although causal relations between coseismic magnetic field changes and earthquake stress drops are no longer in question. This paper extends discussions of tectonomagnetism and tectonoelectricity, over the various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio frequencies (RF) to submicrohertz frequencies, that are covered in Johnston (1989, 1997), Park et al. (1993), Park (1996) special journal issues (Johnston and Parrot, 1989, 1998; Parrot and Johnston, 1993), and books (Hayakawa and Fujinawa, 1994).
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80241-8","usgsCitation":"Johnston, M., 2002, 38 - Electromagnetic fields generated by earthquakes: International Geophysics, v. 81, no. Part A, p. 621-635, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80241-8.","productDescription":"15","startPage":"621","endPage":"635","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":416503,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"81","issue":"Part A","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Johnston, M.J.S. 0000-0003-4326-8368","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4326-8368","contributorId":104889,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Johnston","given":"M.J.S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":871060,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70229419,"text":"70229419 - 2002 - Palynology of Eocene strata in the Sagavanirktok and Canning Formations on the North Slope of Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-03-07T16:43:13.699234","indexId":"70229419","displayToPublicDate":"2002-01-01T10:05:57","publicationYear":"2002","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3006,"text":"Palynology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Palynology of Eocene strata in the Sagavanirktok and Canning Formations on the North Slope of Alaska","docAbstract":"This paper describes, illustrates, and interprets Eocene palynomorph assemblages from the North Slope of Alaska, mainly from 31 outcrop samples from seven stratigraphic sections at Franklin Bluffs on the Sagavanirktok River. The top of the Sagwon Member of the Sagavanirktok Formation is shown to be a thin, coaly, apparently nonmarine sequence almost certainly of early Eocene age; the remainder of the member has long been known to be Paleocene in age. The remaining six sections at Franklin Bluffs contain silty, sandy, and clayey strata and are in the Franklin Bluffs Member of the Sagavanirktok Formation in the type area of this member. Dinocyst and pollen data from the Franklin Bluffs Member suggest mainly an early Eocene age, but some strata might be middle Eocene. In all samples from the type Franklin Bluffs Member that contained reasonably well preserved dinocyst assemblages, the environment of deposition was nearshore marine or estuarine. The Franklin Bluffs Member is the temporal equivalent of the marine Mikkelsen Tongue of the Canning Formation, whose type locality is approximately 90 km to the east–northeast. Previous pollen and plant megafossil data from the Arctic showed that the early to middle Eocene climate of the North Slope of Alaska was warm temperate, perhaps nearly subtropical. At least 20 pollen taxa present in the Eocene of the North Slope also occurred as far south in North America as the Gulf Coast and therefore had enormous latitudinal ranges. Several of these taxa appear to have migrated north to the Arctic Coast, probably mainly in the latest Paleocene, at the beginning of the climatic thermal maximum for the Tertiary. However, there is also evidence that plants producing modern-looking grains of Carya, Juglans, and Liquidambar migrated southward from the Arctic to the Gulf Coast after the early Eocene.
","language":"English","publisher":"Taylor & Francis","doi":"10.2113/0260059","usgsCitation":"Frederiksen, N.O., Edwards, L.E., Ager, T.A., and Sheehan, T.P., 2002, Palynology of Eocene strata in the Sagavanirktok and Canning Formations on the North Slope of Alaska: Palynology, v. 26, no. 1, p. 59-93, https://doi.org/10.2113/0260059.","productDescription":"36 p.","startPage":"59","endPage":"93","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":396789,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Canada, United States","state":"Alaska, Northwest Territories","otherGeospatial":"Amund Ringnes Island, Axel Heiberg Island, Banks Island, Cornwall Island, Death Valley, Ellesmere Island, Franklin Bluffs, Jago River, Mackenzie Delta, North Slope, Sagavanirktok River, Seward Peninsula","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": 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