A program to study the engineering geology of most of the larger Alaska coastal communities and to evaluate their earthquake and other geologic hazards was started promptly after the 1964 Alaska earthquake; this report is a product of that program. Field-study methods were largely reconnaissance, and thus the interpretations in the report are subject to revision as further information becomes available. The report provides broad guidelines for planners and engineers when considering geologic factors during preparation of land-use plans. The use of this information should lead to minimizing future loss of life and property, especially during major earthquakes.
Skagway was established in 1897 as a seaport near the head of Taiya Inlet fiord in the northern part of southeastern Alaska. Rugged mountains, steep-walled valleys, fiords, and numerous glaciers and icefields characterize the landscape of the area. Valley floors are narrow and most carry large streams, which end in tidewater deltas. Skagway is situated on the delta and lower valley floor of the Skagway River.
Glaciers became vastly enlarged during the Pleistocene Epoch and presumably covered the area at least several times. The last major deglaciation probably occurred about 10,000 years ago. Subsequently, there was minor expansion and then partial retreat of glaciers; land rebound because of glacial melting is still going on today.
Bedrock is composed predominantly of plutonic intrusive rocks, chiefly quartz diorite and granodiorite, some metamorphic rocks and a few dikes are present. Most bedrock is of Jurassic and Cretaceous age.
An assortment of surficial deposits of Quaternary age form the valley bottoms and locally part of the valley walls. Thick deposits of sand and gravel have accumulated as deltas at the heads of fiords and as alluvium in the main stream valleys; deposits may be as much as S8S feet thick at Skagway. Locally, thin deposits mantle some of the steep bedrock slopes and also form some moderately to gently sloping ground. Manmade fill covers much of the top of the delta and floor of the Skagway valley. The fill is composed chiefly of gravel and sand. Quarried blocks of granodiorite are used as riprap to face river dikes and on fill areas exposed to waves of Taiya Inlet.
The geologic structure of the area is imperfectly known. However, it appears that plutonic rocks intruded metamorphic rocks in Jurassic and Cretaceous time. Extensive faulting is strongly indicated by the strikingly linear or curvilinear pattern of fiords and many large and small valleys, but no major faults have been positively identified because of concealment by water or surficial deposits. Inferred faults include those coincident with the lower Skagway valley, Taiya Inlet-Taiya valley, and the Katzehin River delta-Upper Dewey Lake. Principal fault movements probably occurred in middle Tertiary time but some movement might have been in late Tertiary or possibly early Quaternary time. Local faults appear to join the Chilkat River fault, a segment of the important Denali fault system, one of the major tectonic elements of southeastern Alaska. One fault segment of this system shows evidence of movement within the last several hundred years. Southeastern Alaska's other major fault system is the active Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system'near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. This fault system passes to within about 100 miles of Skagway. At its northwest end the fault system merges with the Chugach-St. Elias fault.
One hundred twenty-two earthquakes, some of them strong, have been felt or possibly felt at Skagway during the years 1898 through 1969. The closest large earthquake (magnitude about 8) causing some damage at Skagway occurred July 10, 1958. Its epicenter was about 100 miles to the southwest. Other earthquakes, as much as 150 miles away, also have caused slight to moderate damage. The closest instrumentally recorded earthquake (magnitude 6) had its epicenter about 30 miles to the west of Skagway.
Most earthquakes in southeastern Alaska have occurred southwest, west, or northwest of Skagway, near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. They appear to be related to movement along the Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or the Chugach-St. Elias fault. Most have had their epicenters offshore. Some earthquakes may be related to movement at depth along the Denali fault system.
The probability of destructive earthquakes at Skagway is unknown because the tectonics of the region have not been studied in detail. However, on the basis of the seismic record and limited tectonic evidence, we suggest that sometime in the future an earthquake of at least magnitude 6 probably will occur very close to the city, a magnitude 7 earthquake might occur in the general area, and an earthquake of magnitude 8 probably will occur at some distance to the southwest, west, or northwest.
Effects from nearby large earthquakes could cause extensive damage at Skagway. Nine principal effects are considered.
1. Surface displacement. Displacement of ground caused by fault movement would affect only structures built athwart the fault. However, a sudden tectonic uplift of land of as much as a few feet might affect a wide area and necessitate extensive dredging and wharf rebuilding. On the other hand, a subsidence of several feet would allow tidewater to reach inland and flood part of the harbor facilities and the business district.
2. Ground shaking. Because intensity of ground shaking during earthquakes largely depends on type and water content of the geologic material being shaken, the geologic materials are separated into three categories. Those considered susceptible to strongest shaking are grouped into category 1 (containing materials that are saturated, loose, and of medium- to fine-grain sizes); those of intermediate susceptibility in category 2; and those least susceptible to shaking in category 3.
3. Compaction of some medium-grained sediments during strong earthquake shaking could cause local settling of alluvial and deltaic surfaces. Also, some manmade fills near the harbor might undergo marked differential settling.
4. Liquefaction of saturated beds of uniform, fine sand commonly occurs during strong earthquakes. Few such beds, however, are positively identified at Skagway; some may occur within deltaic and alluvial deposits. If present, these beds might liquefy and cause local settling or trigger landslides.
5. Ejection of water-sediment mixtures from earthquake-induced fractures or from point sources, plus some associated ground subsidence, is common during major earthquakes where saturated sand and fine gravel deposits are confined beneath generally impermeable beds. Some alluvial and deltaic deposits at Skagway probably are susceptible to these processes. Locally, ejecta might cover roads and areas between buildings and fill low-lying areas. Associated ground fracturing might damage roadways, foundations of buildings, and other facilities.
6. Subaerial and subaqueous slides occur frequently during earthquakes. Saturated loose sediments on steep slopes are especially susceptible to sliding. During a major earthquake, surficial deposits forming such slopes along the southeast side of the Skagway valley probably would be subject to sliding or earthflowing on an extensive scale. Some sliding might extend onto the valley floor and damage or destroy buildings and part of the railroad. Rockfalls would be numerous and locally very large rockslides might occur.
Subaqueous sliding of the Skagway delta is potentially the most damaging of earthquake effects. Sliding may have occurred there during the earthquake of September 16, 1899; any future major earthquake close to the city would cause extensive sliding, possibly triggered in part by liquefaction. If shaking continued for several minutes, successive slides might progressively remove large portions of the delta and allow extensive land spreading and fracturing of Skagway River alluvium as much as several thousand feet landward from the shoreline.
7. Glacier surfaces commonly receive extensive snow avalanches and rockslides during seismic shaking. In the Skagway area, glaciers may be disrupted at their margins, and resulting blocked streams might form lakes in a few places. If these lakes drained suddenly, downstream areas would he flooded. No long-term effects, such as glacier expansion, are expected.
8. Ground- and surface-water levels often are affected during and after strong earthquake shaking. At Skagway, ground-water levels probably would be lowered, but there would be no permanent change in water quality. Earthquake-triggered landslides could dam the Skagway River; the sudden failure of the dams might cause severe flooding.
9. Waves generated by earthquakes include tsunamis, seiche waves, and waves caused by subaerial and submarine sliding and tectonic displacement of land. Damage in the Skagway area would depend on wave height, tidal stage, and warning time. Some waves triggered by subaerial and subaqueous slides have a strong possibility of reaching heights of as much as 60 feet--or possibly even higher. Tsunamis from the open ocean must travel 160 miles of fiords before reaching Skagway, which allows sufficient time for appraisal of expectable wave height and, if necessary, evacuation of the harbor area and other low-lying ground.
Geologic hazards other than those hazards associated with earthquakes include nonearthquake-induced subaerial and subaqueous slides, floods, and slow uplift (rebound) of land. Landslides of moderate size are known to have occurred from time to time during heavy rains such as those of September 1967. Subaqueous slides happen intermittently during the normal growth of deltas. Submarine cables on the floor of northern Taiya Inlet presumably were broken by such slides on September 10, 1927. Flooding by the Skagway River has inundated parts of the city many times, usually during heavy rains in the fall. Two floods were reported to have been caused by the sudden draining of glacier-dammed lakes. Dikes protect the city from many smaller floods, but heightening and broadening is needed to give full protection. Slow land uplift at Skagway, because of regional glacioisostatic rebound, averages 0.059 foot per year. On this basis, the shoreline theoretically shifted seaward 500 feet and the harbor shoaled 4.4 feet between 1897 and 1972.
It is recommended that future geologic study of the Skagway area include: detailed geologic mapping and collection of data on geologic materials, joints, faults, and slope stability; complete evaluation of earthquake probability and response of materials to shaking; and collection and evaluation of periodic soundings and sediment data from Skagway and Taiya deltas to assist in forecasting the stability of the delta front.
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1972 - Reconnaissance geologic map of the Nome quadrangle, Seward Peninsula, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:04","indexId":"ofr72326","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-326","title":"Reconnaissance geologic map of the Nome quadrangle, Seward Peninsula, Alaska","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr72326","usgsCitation":"Sainsbury, C., Hummel, C.L., and Hudson, T., 1972, Reconnaissance geologic map of the Nome quadrangle, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-326, ii, 28 leaves :ill., maps ;27 cm.; 1 sheet, scale 1:250,000, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72326.","productDescription":"ii, 28 leaves :ill., maps ;27 cm.; 1 sheet, scale 1:250,000","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":106535,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_8707.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"8707"},{"id":148986,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0326/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":44783,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0326/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44784,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0326/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"250000","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a70e4b07f02db641334","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sainsbury, C.L.","contributorId":99968,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sainsbury","given":"C.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171677,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hummel, C. L.","contributorId":53798,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hummel","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171675,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Hudson, Travis","contributorId":90282,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hudson","given":"Travis","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171676,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":15770,"text":"ofr72324 - 1972 - Reconnaissance geologic map of the west half of the Solomon quadrangle, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-05-17T19:29:20.879167","indexId":"ofr72324","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-324","title":"Reconnaissance geologic map of the west half of the Solomon quadrangle, Alaska","docAbstract":"The Solomon quadrangle adjoins the Bering Sea east of Nome, Alaska. It has a common west border with the Nome quadrangle (Sainsbury and others, 1972b) and a common north border with the Bendeleben 1:250,000- scale quadrangle.
Part of the area was mapped by Smith (1910), who discussed the rocks in some detail. The rocks mapped by Smith were remapped in 1971 along with the unmapped part of the west half of the Solomon quadrangle. Maps covering half the area of the present report have been issued in preliminary form at a scale of 1:63,360 (Sainsbury and others, 1972, 1972a). Consequently, only a brief text accompanies this map.
The east half of the Solomon quadrangle has been mapped by Thomas P. Miller, U.S. Geological Survey (unpublished). Mapping techniques of the various workers led to different maps and results; hence the map of the west half is presented only in preliminary form- a final compilation of the entire Solomon quadrangle may incorporate changes.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72324","usgsCitation":"Sainsbury, C., Hudson, T., Ewing, R., and Marsh, W.R., 1972, Reconnaissance geologic map of the west half of the Solomon quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-324, Report: 10 p.; 1 Plate: 32.91 x 29.61 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72324.","productDescription":"Report: 10 p.; 1 Plate: 32.91 x 29.61 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":400724,"rank":4,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0324/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":106534,"rank":700,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_8706.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"8706"},{"id":148987,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0324/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":44785,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0324/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"250000","country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Solomon quadrangle","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -165,\n 64\n ],\n [\n -162,\n 64\n ],\n [\n -162,\n 65\n ],\n [\n -165,\n 65\n ],\n [\n -165,\n 64\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad4e4b07f02db682c6f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sainsbury, C.L.","contributorId":99968,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sainsbury","given":"C.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171680,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hudson, Travis","contributorId":90282,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hudson","given":"Travis","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171679,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ewing, Rodney","contributorId":106914,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ewing","given":"Rodney","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171681,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Marsh, William R.","contributorId":34524,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Marsh","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171678,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":22333,"text":"ofr727 - 1972 - Water resources of the Kenai-Soldotna area, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-02-25T14:33:04","indexId":"ofr727","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-7","title":"Water resources of the Kenai-Soldotna area, Alaska","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr727","issn":"0094-9140","usgsCitation":"Anderson, G.S., and Jones, S.H., 1972, Water resources of the Kenai-Soldotna area, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-7, Report: 81 p.; 2 Plates: 19.01 x 21.13 inches and 19.77 x 21.43 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr727.","productDescription":"Report: 81 p.; 2 Plates: 19.01 x 21.13 inches and 19.77 x 21.43 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":51741,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0007/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":155969,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0007/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":51742,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0007/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":51743,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0007/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Kenai-Soldotna area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -151.4520263671875,\n 60.28613138228136\n ],\n [\n -149.8974609375,\n 60.4165643862813\n ],\n [\n -149.8974609375,\n 60.91441435497479\n ],\n [\n -150.325927734375,\n 61.079544234557304\n ],\n [\n -151.534423828125,\n 60.79402357411143\n ],\n [\n -151.4520263671875,\n 60.28613138228136\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f4e4b07f02db5f0522","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Anderson, G. S.","contributorId":81928,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Anderson","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":188056,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jones, S. H.","contributorId":68759,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jones","given":"S.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":188055,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":3582,"text":"cir672 - 1972 - Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-18T22:06:11","indexId":"cir672","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"672","title":"Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system","docAbstract":"The proposed trans-Alaska oil pipeline, which would traverse the state north to south from Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast to Valdez on Prince William Sound, will be subject to serious earthquake hazards over much of its length. To be acceptable from an environmental standpoint, the pipeline system is to be designed to minimize the potential of oil leakage resulting from seismic shaking, faulting, and seismically induced ground deformation. \r\n\r\nThe design of the pipeline system must accommodate the effects of earthquakes with magnitudes ranging from 5.5 to 8.5 as specified in the 'Stipulations for Proposed Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System.' This report characterizes ground motions for the specified earthquakes in terms of peak levels of ground acceleration, velocity, and displacement and of duration of shaking. \r\n\r\nPublished strong motion data from the Western United States are critically reviewed to determine the intensity and duration of shaking within several kilometers of the slipped fault. For magnitudes 5 and 6, for which sufficient near-fault records are available, the adopted ground motion values are based on data. For larger earthquakes the values are based on extrapolations from the data for smaller shocks, guided by simplified theoretical models of the faulting process.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir672","usgsCitation":"Page, R.A., Boore, D., Joyner, W.B., and Coulter, H., 1972, Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 672, iii, 23 p. :illus. ;27 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir672.","productDescription":"iii, 23 p. :illus. ;27 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":30613,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0672/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":117122,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0672/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ab0e4b07f02db66dcf7","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Page, Robert A.","contributorId":17207,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Page","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147196,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Boore, D.M. 0000-0002-8605-9673","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8605-9673","contributorId":64226,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Boore","given":"D.M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147198,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Joyner, W. B.","contributorId":70746,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Joyner","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147199,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Coulter, H.W.","contributorId":34490,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Coulter","given":"H.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":147197,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":15772,"text":"ofr72323 - 1972 - Reconnaissance geologic maps of the Solomon D-5 and C-5 quadrangle, Seward Peninsula, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-02T17:16:06","indexId":"ofr72323","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-323","title":"Reconnaissance geologic maps of the Solomon D-5 and C-5 quadrangle, Seward Peninsula, Alaska","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr72323","usgsCitation":"Sainsbury, C., Hudson, T., Ewing, R., and Marsh, W., 1972, Reconnaissance geologic maps of the Solomon D-5 and C-5 quadrangle, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-323, 12 leaves :ill., 2 folded maps ;27 cm.; 2 sheets, scale 1:63,360, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72323.","productDescription":"12 leaves :ill., 2 folded maps ;27 cm.; 2 sheets, scale 1:63,360","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":148989,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0323/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":44800,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0323/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44801,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0323/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":44802,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0323/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"63360","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a70e4b07f02db641023","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Sainsbury, C.L.","contributorId":99968,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sainsbury","given":"C.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171690,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hudson, Travis","contributorId":90282,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hudson","given":"Travis","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171689,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ewing, Rodney","contributorId":106914,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ewing","given":"Rodney","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171691,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Marsh, W.R.","contributorId":76759,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Marsh","given":"W.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171688,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":3372,"text":"cir650 - 1972 - Energy resources of the United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-18T22:05:59","indexId":"cir650","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"650","title":"Energy resources of the United States","docAbstract":"Estimates are made of United States resources of coal, petroleum liquids, natural gas, uranium, geothermal energy, and oil from oil shale. The estimates, compiled by specialists of the U.S. Geological Survey, are generally made on geologic projections of favorable rocks and on anticipated frequency of the energy resource in the favorable rocks. Accuracy of the estimates probably ranges from 20 to 50 percent for identified-recoverable resources to about an order of magnitude for undiscovered-submarginal resources. \r\n\r\nThe total coal resource base in the United States is estimated to be about 3,200 billion tons, of which 200-390 billion tons can be considered in the category identified and recoverable. More than 70 percent of current production comes from the Appalachian basin where the resource base, better known than for the United States as a whole, is about 330 billion tons, of which 22 billion tons is identified and recoverable. Coals containing less than 1 percent sulfur are the premium coals. These are abundant in the western coal fields, but in the Appalachian basin the resource base for low-sulfur coal is estimated to be only a little more than 100 billion tons, of which 12 billion tons is identified and recoverable. \r\n\r\nOf the many estimates of petroleum liquids and natural-gas resources, those of the U.S. Geological Survey are the largest because, in general, our estimates include the largest proportion of favorable ground for exploration. We estimate the total resource base for petroleum liquids to be about 2,900 billion barrels, of which 52 billion barrels is identified and recoverable. Of the total resource base, some 600 billion barrels is in Alaska or offshore from Alaska, 1,500 billion barrels is offshore from the United States, and 1,300 billion barrels is onshore in the conterminous United States. Identified-recoverable resources of petroleum liquids corresponding to these geographic units are 11, 6, and 36 billion barrels, respectively. \r\n\r\nThe total natural-gas resource of the United States is estimated to be about 6,600 trillion cubic feet, of which 290 trillion cubic feet is identified and recoverable. In geographic units comparable to those for petroleum liquids, the resource bases are 1,400, 3,400, and 2,900 trillion cubic feet, and the identified-recoverable resources are 31, 40, and 220 trillion cubic feet, respectively. \r\n\r\nUranium resources in conventional deposits, where uranium is the major product, are estimated at 1,600,000 tons of U3O8, of which 250,000 tons is identified and recoverable. A potential byproduct resource of more than 7 million tons of U3O8, is estimated for phosphate rock, but none of this resource is recoverable under present economic conditions. \r\n\r\nThe resources of heat in potential geothermal energy sources are poorly known. The total resource base for the United States is certainly greater than 10 22 calories, of which only 2.5 ? 10 18 calories can be considered identified and recoverable at present. \r\n\r\nOil shale is estimated to contain 26 trillion barrels of oil. None of this resource is economic at present, but if prices increase moderately, 160-600 billion barrels of this oil could be shifted into the identified-recoverable category.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir650","usgsCitation":"Theobald, P., Schweinfurth, S.P., and Duncan, D.C., 1972, Energy resources of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 650, iii, 27 p. :illus. ;26 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir650.","productDescription":"iii, 27 p. :illus. ;26 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":30382,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0650/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":124683,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1972/0650/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a13e4b07f02db6022a2","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Theobald, P. K.","contributorId":45293,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Theobald","given":"P. K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146738,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schweinfurth, Stanley P.","contributorId":99123,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schweinfurth","given":"Stanley","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146739,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Duncan, Donald Cave","contributorId":27427,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Duncan","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"Cave","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146737,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":14665,"text":"ofr72229 - 1972 - Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Haines area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:00","indexId":"ofr72229","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-229","title":"Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Haines area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards","docAbstract":"The Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, brought into sharp focus the need for engineering geologic studies in urban areas. Study of the Haines area constitutes an integral part of an overall program to evaluate earthquake and other geologic hazards in most of the larger Alaska coastal communities. The evaluations of geologic hazards that follow, although based only upon reconnaissance studies and, therefore, subject to revision, will provide broad guidelines useful in city and land-use planning. It is hoped that the knowledge gained will result in new facilities being built in the best possible geologic environments and being designed so as to minimize future loss of life and property damage. \r\n\r\nHaines, which is in the northern part of southeastern Alaska approximately 75 miles northwest of Juneau, had a population, of about 700 people in 1970. It is built at the northern end of the Chilkat Peninsula and lies within the Coast Mountains of the Pacific Mountain system. The climate is predominantly marine and is characterized by mild winters and cool summers. The mapped area described in this report comprises about 17 square miles of land; deep fiords constitute most of the remaining mapped area that is evaluated in this study. \r\n\r\nThe Haines area was covered by glacier ice at least once and probably several times during the Pleistocene Epoch. The presence of emergent marine deposits, several hundred feet above sea level, demonstrates that the land has been uplifted relative to sea level since the last major deglaciation of the region about 10,000 years ago. The rate of relative uplift of the land at Haines during the past 39 years is 2.26 cm per year. Most or all of this uplift appears to be due to rebound as a result of deglaciation. \r\n\r\nBoth bedrock and surficial deposits are present in the area. Metamorphic and igneous rocks constitute the exposed bedrock. The metamorphic rocks consist of metabasalt of Mesozoic age and pyroxenite of probable early middle Cretaceous age. The igneous rocks consist of diorite and quartz diorite (tonalite) of Cretaceous age. Sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age may be present in the mapped area but are not exposed. The surficial deposits of Quaternary age,-have been divided into the following map units on the basis of time Of deposition, mode of origin, and grain size: (1) undifferentiated drift deposits, (2) outwash and Ice-contact deposits; (3) elevated fine-grained marine deposits, (4) elevated shore and delta deposits, (5) alluvial fan deposits, (6) colluvial deposits, (7) modern beach deposits, (8) Chilkat River flood-plain and delta deposits, and (9) manmade fill. Offshore deposits are described but are not mapped.\r\n\r\nSoutheastern Alaska lies within the tectonically active belt that rims the northern Pacific Basin and has been active since at least early Paleozoic time. The outcrop pattern is the result of late Mesozoic and Tertiary deformational, metamorphic, and intrusive events. Large-scale faulting has been common. The two most prominent inferred fault systems in southeastern Alaska and surrounding regions are: (1) The Denali fault system and (2) the Fairweather-Queen Charlotte Islands fault system. In the general area of Haines, rocks of Mesozoic age northeast of Chilkat River have a simple monoclinal structure. Paleozoic-Mesozoic rocks southwest of Chilkat River are gently to rather complexly folded. Several major and numerous minor faults probably transect the general area of Haines but their exact location and character can only be inferred because their traces are coincident to the long axes of fiords and river valleys, where they are concealed by water or by valley-floor deposits. Inferred faults in or near the Haines mapped area are: (1) Chilkat River fault, (2) Chilkoot fault, (3) Takhin fault, and (4) faults in the saddle area at Haines. \r\n\r\nSoutheastern Alaska lies in one of the two most seismically active zones in Alaska, a State where 6 percent of the world's shallow earthqua","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr72229","usgsCitation":"Lemke, R.W., and Yehle, L.A., 1972, Reconnaissance engineering geology of the Haines area, Alaska, with emphasis on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-229, iii, 109 p. :ill. (some folded), maps (2 folded) ;27 cm.; 2 sheets, scale 1:24,000, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72229.","productDescription":"iii, 109 p. :ill. (some folded), maps (2 folded) ;27 cm.; 2 sheets, scale 1:24,000","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":106529,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_8686.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"8686"},{"id":147830,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0229/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":43376,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0229/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":43377,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0229/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"24000","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a74e4b07f02db644298","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lemke, Richard Walter","contributorId":105280,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemke","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"Walter","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":169810,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Yehle, Lynn A. yehle@usgs.gov","contributorId":3794,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Yehle","given":"Lynn","email":"yehle@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":169809,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":14667,"text":"ofr72230 - 1972 - Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-02-09T20:07:02.07676","indexId":"ofr72230","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"72-230","title":"Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska","docAbstract":"The great Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, brought into sharp focus the need for engineering geologic studies in seismically active regions. As a result, nine communities in southeastern Alaska were selected for reconnaissance investigations as an integral part of an overall program to evaluate earthquake and other geologic hazards in most of the larger Alaska coastal communities. This report gives background information on the regional and other general factors that bear on these evaluations.
Southeastern Alaska, about 525 miles long and averaging about 125 miles in width, consists of a narrow mainland strip and numerous islands. For the most part, it is a region of rugged relief with numerous glaciers capping many of the higher mountainous areas and with long linear fiords forming the inland waterways. A maritime climate prevails with mild winters and cool summers. The southeastern part of the region receives the highest precipitation in the continental United States. Ketchikan, with a population of 6,994 in 1970, is the largest city. Geology and structure of the area are complex. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks crop out and range in age from Paleozoic to Tertiary. Surficial deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene age mantle many areas.
All of southeastern Alaska, except probably the highest peaks, was covered by glacier ice advances of late Pleistocene age. Major deglaciation was well advanced by 10,000 years ago--a time which approximately marks the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene. There followed a period of warm climate called the Hypsithermal, which in southeastern Alaska began 7,000-8,000 years ago and ended about 4,800-3,500 years ago. Glaciers in most places receded back of their present positions. The Hypsithermal was followed by an interval (termed Neoglaciation) of cooler climate and resurgence of glacier ice which continues to the present, although most glaciers are now rapidly receding.
During the past 10,000 years worldwide sea level has risen about 100 feet, but during the past 4,000 years it has risen only about 10 feet or about 0.03 inch per year. With sea level used as a datum, the amount of sea-level rise must be added to the apparent uplift of land for the time under consideration to determine the actual amount of land uplift.
The widespread presence of emergent marine deposits, several hundred feet above sea level, demonstrates that the land in southeastern Alaska has been uplifted since the last major deglaciation. The greatest known has been uplifted since the last major deglaciation. The greatest known uplift is in the vicinity of Juneau where glaciomarine deposits are present 750 feet above present sea level. Part of southeastern Alaska is presently undergoing one of the most rapid rates of uplift of any place in the world. The fastest emergence is occurring in the Glacier Bay area where the land is being uplifted relative to sea level approximately 3.9 cm per year. Most or all of the uplift appears to be due to rebound as a result of deglaciation.
Southeastern Alaska lies within the circum-Pacific earthquake belt, one of the world's greatest zones of seismic activity. During historic time, there have been five earthquakes in the region with magnitudes of 8 or greater, three with magnitudes of 7 to 8, eight with magnitudes of 6 to 7, more than 15 with magnitudes of 5 to 6, and about 140 recorded earthquakes with magnitudes smaller than 5 or of unassigned magnitudes. All of the earthquakes with magnitudes 8 or greater, and a large proportion of the others, appear to be related to the active Fairweather- Queen Charlotte Islands fault system or its western extension, the Chugach-St. Elias fault. Earthquake epicenters on the Denali fault system, the other major fault system in southeastern Alaska, are few in comparison. However, because high microearthquake activity has been recorded recently on this system and earthquakes of moderate size have occurred on some of its segments, the Denali fault system probably should not be dismissed as a relict fault system of no current tectonic importance. There are numerous other known faults, as well as lineaments that may be faults of varying degrees of tectonic activity in southeastern Alaska, adjacent Canada, and eastern Alaska. One of these elements is the Totschunda fault system, which connects with the Denali fault system in eastern Alaska; it has been very active during Holocene time but few historical earthquake epicenters appear to be related to it.
Both historical seismicity and geologic conditions, such as frequency and recency of faulting, must be considered together to permit an assessment of the future earthquake probability of an area. Data are too few for both factors for an accurate evaluation to be made of earthquake probability in southeastern Alaska. However, information compiled in the form of strain-release and seismic-zone maps permit some generalizations. Thus, it is tentatively concluded that most, if not all, of southeastern Alaska should be placed in seismic zone 3, a zone in which earthquakes of magnitude greater than 6 will occur from time to time and where there may be major damage to manmade structures.
Inferred effects from future earthquakes in southeastern Alaska include: (1) surface displacement along faults and other tectonic land-level changes, (2) ground shaking, (3) compaction, (4) liquefaction in cohesionless materials, (5) reaction of sensitive and quick clays, (6) water-sediment ejection and associated subsidence and ground fracturing, (7) earthquake-induced sub aerial slides and slumps, (8) earthquake induced subaqueous slides, (9) effects on glaciers and related features, (10) effects on ground water and stream flow, and (11) tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves. Because of the reconnaissance nature of our studies in the coastal communities and the sparsity of laboratory data on physical properties of geologic units in each area studied, the inferred effects must be largely empirical and generalized. Therefore, the inferences are based in large part upon the effects of past major earthquakes in Alaska and elsewhere, particularly upon the well-documented effects of the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964.
Buildings, highways, bridges, tunnels, harbor facilities, pipelines, canals, and other manmade structures may be severely damaged or destroyed by fault displacement or related tectonic land-level changes in southeastern Alaska. Direct damage from fault rupture would be restricted virtually to structures built directly athwart the fault. In California and Nevada, fault rupture almost always accompanies shocks of magnitude 6.5 or greater. The Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, and the Chilean earthquake of May 22, 1960, dramatically illustrated the severe adverse effects that can result from uplift or subsidence over a wide area.
The variable most responsible for the degree of shaking at any epicentral distance is the type of ground. Generally, shaking is considerably greater in poorly consolidated deposits than in hard bedrock, particularly if the deposits are water saturated. Severe shaking of alluvial deposits and manmade fill, with resultant heavy damage, is well documented from the records of many past earthquakes.
Damage commonly has been heavy as a result of ground settlement caused by compaction of loose sediments by shaking during an earthquake. This has been especially true where compaction was accompanied by tectonic downdrop of land, such as occurred during the Chilean earthquake of 1960 and the Alaska earthquake of 1964. Loosely emplaced manmade fill, deltaic deposits, beach deposits, and alluvial deposits may be susceptible to compaction in southeastern Alaska during a severe earthquake.
Liquefaction of sand and silt is a fairly common effect of large earthquakes. It was well illustrated at Niigata, Japan, during the earthquake of June 16, 1964, and resulted in extensive damage. When part of a sloping soil mass liquefies, the entire mass can undergo catastrophic failure and can flow as a high-density liquid. In southeastern Alaska, deltaic deposits probably would be most susceptible to liquefaction.
Sensitive and quick clays, which lose a considerable part of their strength when shaken, commonly fail during an earthquake and become rapid earthflows. Extensive studies were made of the sensitivity of the Bootlegger Cove Clay at Anchorage because of the marked loss of shear strength and dramatic failures of the deposits during the Alaska earthquake of 1964. If similar sensitive clays are present in some places in southeastern Alaska, they most likely are in some of the emergent fine-grained marine deposits; supporting data to confirm their presence, however, are largely lacking.
Records of some 50 major earthquakes show that in at least half of the instances water and sediment have been ejected from surficial deposits Water-sediment ejection and associated subsidence and ground fracturing commonly cause extensive damage to the works of man. Ejecta may fill basements and other low-lying parts of buildings. Agricultural land can be covered with a blanket of infertile soils, and small ponds can be filled or made shallow. In southeastern Alaska these phenomena are most likely to occur on valley floors, deltas, tidal flats, alluvial fans, swamps, and lakeshores.
Earthquake-induced sliding on land generally is confined to steep slopes but may take place in fine-grained deposits on moderately to nearly flat surfaces if the deposits are subject to liquefaction. A large rockslide triggered by the Lituya Bay, Alaska, earthquake of July 10, 1958, generated a wave that surged up the opposite wall of the inlet to a record height of 1,740 feet. During the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of August 17, 1959, a spectacular rockslide plunged into the Madison River canyon, buried 28 people, dammed the river, and created a large lake. Earthquake-records are replete with accounts of sliding of surficial deposits during moderate to large earthquakes. Most or all of the general factors that favor subaerial landsliding are present in southeastern Alaska.
Earthquake-induced subaqueous slides can produce adverse effects both nearshore and some distance offshore. Nearshore sliding may progress shoreward and destroy harbor facilities and other structures, commonly with substantial loss of life. Disastrous large submarine slides occurred along the fronts of deltas in Seward and Valdez during the Alaska earthquake of 1964. In similar fashion, the largest submarine slides in southeastern Alaska likely will be triggered along the larger delta fronts. Sliding farther offshore can constitute a threat to navigation because of changes in water depths. Also underwater sliding can break communication cables.
Glaciers were not greatly affected by the Alaska earthquake of 1964 despite the fact that about 20 percent of the area that underwent strong shaking is covered by ice. In contrast, the cataclysmic avalanche of ice and rock that fell from a high glacier-covered peak in Peru during the earthquake of May 31, 1970, produced devastating effects downvalley on man and his works in the form of mudflows. Most towns in southeastern Alaska are sufficiently distant from glaciers so as not be to directly affected.
Both the Alaska earthquake of 1964 and the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of 1959 significantly affected ground- and surface-water regimens. Water levels in some wells declined whereas in others flow increased. Some springs discharged at a rate three times as much as normal; flow of others decreased or stopped. Discharge of many streams increased markedly. Most or all of the effects described above could occur in parts of southeastern Alaska during future large earthquakes.
Tsunamis, seiches, and other abnormal water waves associated with large earthquakes commonly cause vast property damage and heavy loss of life. Tsunami effects can be devastating to coastal areas as far as many thousands of miles from their generation source. Seiche effects generally are confined to inland bodies of water or to relatively enclosed coastal bodies of water. Abnormal waves generated by submarine sliding or by subaerial sliding into water generally produce only local effects but may be highly devastating. Tsunami waves resulting from the Chilean earthquake of 1960 inflicted extensive damage and loss of life on coastal communities throughout a large part of southern Chile, and significant runups and damage were recorded in many places throughout the Pacific Ocean area. The tsunami waves generated by the Alaska earthquake of 1964 struck with devastating force along a broad stretch of the Alaska coast and produced heavy property damage and loss of life as far away as Crescent City, Calif. Seiche waves generated by that earthquake reached runup heights of 20-30 feet on some lakes in Alaska, and water-level fluctuations were recorded on streams, reservoirs, lakes, and swimming pools in States bordering the Gulf of Mexico. Waves generated by submarine sliding struck violently at a number of places during or immediately after the quake and were the major cause of loss of life and damage to property. Slide-generated waves probably would have a higher destructive potential in southeastern Alaska than either tsunami waves or seiche waves because of their possibly higher local runups and because they can hit the shores almost without warning during or immediately after an earthquake.
Nonearthquake-related geologic hazards, although generally far less dramatic than those related to earthquakes, tend to occur so much more frequently or persistently that their aggregate effects can be significant. Three kinds of geologic hazards of this type are discussed: (1) nonearthquake-induced landsliding and subaqueous sliding, (2) flooding, and (3) land uplift.
The potential for nonearthquake-triggered landsliding in southeastern Alaska ranges widely from place to place. Past sliding generally furnishes the clue in the prediction of where and in what materials future sliding will occur. Fast-moving rockslides, debris slides, and mudflows can be expected to occur from time to time on steep slopes and be highly destructive to highways, power plants, pipelines, buildings, and other facilities located on a slope or at its base. Present slow downslope movement of talus can be expected to continue at the same general rate unless conditions are changed by man or there are climatic changes. Snow and debris avalanches can be especially hazardous during winter months. Long-inactive landslides may be triggered into renewed activity or new slides may be created by man-induced modifications. Accelerated slope erosion and debris flows may follow large-scale clearing and cutting of timber. Subaqueous sliding can be expected to occur periodically along fronts of deltas and on other oversteepened underwater slopes.
Floods have been common in parts of southeastern Alaska because of heavy precipitation and rapid runoff from steep slopes with resulting heavy damage to roads and other facilities. Continued damage can be expected in the future unless more remedial measures are taken.
Current uplift of land in southeastern Alaska, although probably not affecting man significantly in a short period of time, may have some adverse long-term effects. These long-term effects should be borne in mind when facilities such as docks and boat harbors are constructed on or near the shore, where there is a critical relation between height of land and water.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr72230","usgsCitation":"Lemke, R.W., and Yehle, L.A., 1972, Regional and other general factors bearing on evaluation of earthquake and other geologic hazards to coastal communities of southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 72-230, ii, 99 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr72230.","productDescription":"ii, 99 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":425551,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0230/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":147832,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1972/0230/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United 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