Acidic deposition, or \"acid rain,\" describes any form of precipitation, including rain, snow, and fog, with a pH of 5.5 or below (Note: pH values below 7 are acidic; vinegar has a pH of 3). It often results when the acidity of normal precipitation is increased by sulfates and nitrates that are emitted into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. This form of airborne contamination is considered harmful, both directly and indirectly, to a host of plant and animal species.
Although acid rain can fall virtually anywhere, ecological damages in environmentally sensitive areas downwind of industrial and urban emissions are a major concern. This includes areas that have a reduced capacity to neutralize acid inputs because of low alkalinity soils and areas that contain species with a low tolerance to acid conditions. To determine the distribution of acidic deposition and evaluate its biological effects, research and monitoring are being conducted by the federal government with support from states, universities, and private industry.
The national extent of the acid rain problem has been estimated by sampling water from 3,000 lakes and 500 streams (Irving 1991), representing more than 28,000 lakes and 56,000 stream reaches with a total of 200,000 km (125,000 mi). Some particularly sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountain region, have been more intensively sampled and the biota examined in detail for effects from acidity.
To identify trends in aquatic ecosystems, present and historical survey data on water chemistry and associated biota are compared. In lakes, the chemical and biological history and pH trends may be inferred or reconstructed in some cases by examining assemblages of fossil diatoms and aquatic invertebrates in the sediment layers. In terrestrial ecosystems, vegetation damage is surveyed and effects of acidic deposition to plants and animals are determined from laboratory and field exposure experiments. Natural variation in populations and the complex interactions between acidity and other ecosystem components make it difficult to extend many of the research findings to populations or communities. Acidity can also modify ecosystem processes such as decomposition and the flow of nutrients. Therefore, models are often used to predict such effects by combining information on individual species' effects, population distributions, and the patterns and amounts of acidic deposition.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"National Biological Service","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","usgsCitation":"Schreiber, R.K., 1995, Acidic deposition (\"acid rain\"), chap. of Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems, p. 418-420.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"418","endPage":"420","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":127448,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":339948,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.webharvest.gov/peth04/20041019015728/https://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/index.htm","linkHelpText":"Archived website"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b13e4b07f02db6a350b","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"LaRoe, Edward T.","contributorId":112276,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"LaRoe","given":"Edward","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":505506,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Farris, Gaye S.","contributorId":84410,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Farris","given":"Gaye","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[{"id":455,"text":"National Wetlands Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":505509,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Puckett, Catherine E. cpuckett@usgs.gov","contributorId":4629,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Puckett","given":"Catherine","email":"cpuckett@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":505507,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Doran, Peter D.","contributorId":17533,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Doran","given":"Peter","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":505508,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Mac, Michael J.","contributorId":16772,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mac","given":"Michael","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":505505,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":5}],"authors":[{"text":"Schreiber, R. Kent","contributorId":58145,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schreiber","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"Kent","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":298836,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1007879,"text":"1007879 - 1995 - Costs and effectiveness of methods used for population estimates of bighorn sheep in Death Valley National Park","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:17","indexId":"1007879","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1379,"text":"Desert Bighorn Council Transactions","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Costs and effectiveness of methods used for population estimates of bighorn sheep in Death Valley National Park","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Desert Bighorn Council Transactions","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","usgsCitation":"Douglas, C.L., and Longshore, K., 1995, Costs and effectiveness of methods used for population estimates of bighorn sheep in Death Valley National Park: Desert Bighorn Council Transactions, v. 39, p. 1-9.","productDescription":"p. 1-9","startPage":"1","endPage":"9","numberOfPages":"9","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129928,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"39","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad6e4b07f02db683e25","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Douglas, C. L.","contributorId":64586,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Douglas","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":316201,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Longshore, K.M.","contributorId":70337,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Longshore","given":"K.M.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":316202,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70184397,"text":"70184397 - 1995 - Increasing frequency of plastic particles ingested by seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-03-08T12:44:37","indexId":"70184397","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2676,"text":"Marine Pollution Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Increasing frequency of plastic particles ingested by seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific","docAbstract":"We examined gut contents of 1799 seabirds comprising 24 species collected in 1988-1990 to assess the types and quantities of plastic particles ingested by seabirds in the subarctic waters of Alaska. Of the 15 species found to ingest plastic, most were surface-feeders (shearwaters, petrels, gulls) or plankton-feeding divers (auklets, puffins). Of 4417 plastic particles examined, 76% were industrial pellets and 21% were fragments of ‘user’ plastic. Ingestion rates varied geographically, but no trends were evident and rates of plastic ingestion varied far more among species within areas than within species among areas. Comparison with similar data from 1968 seabirds comprising 37 species collected in 1969-1977 revealed that plastic ingestion by seabirds has increased significantly during the 10–15-year interval between studies. This was demonstrated by: (i) an increase in the total number of species ingesting plastic; (ii) an increase in the frequency of occurrence of plastic particles within species that ingested plastic; and, (iii) an increase in the mean number of plastic particles ingested by individuals of those species.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0025-326X(94)00121-O","usgsCitation":"Robards, M.D., Piatt, J.F., and Wohl, K.D., 1995, Increasing frequency of plastic particles ingested by seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific: Marine Pollution Bulletin, v. 30, no. 2, p. 151-157, https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(94)00121-O.","productDescription":"7 p.","startPage":"151","endPage":"157","costCenters":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":337079,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"otherGeospatial":"North Pacific","volume":"30","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58c12663e4b014cc3a3d3527","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Robards, Martin D.","contributorId":40148,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Robards","given":"Martin","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":681316,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Piatt, John F. 0000-0002-4417-5748 jpiatt@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4417-5748","contributorId":3025,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Piatt","given":"John","email":"jpiatt@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[{"id":117,"text":"Alaska Science Center Biology WTEB","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":116,"text":"Alaska Science Center Biology MFEB","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":681317,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Wohl, Kenton D.","contributorId":77896,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Wohl","given":"Kenton","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":681318,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":1007935,"text":"1007935 - 1995 - Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-10-10T21:58:34.604286","indexId":"1007935","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1459,"text":"Ecological Monographs","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm","docAbstract":"Multiscale patterns of spatial and temporal variation in density and population structure were used to evaluate the generality of a three—trophic—level cascade among sea otters (Enhydra lutris), invertebrate herbivores, and macroalgae in Alaska. The paradigm holds that where sea otters occur herbivores are rare and plants are abundant, whereas when sea otters are absent herbivores are relatively common and plants are rare. Spatial patterns were based on 20 randomly placed quadrats at 153 randomly selected sites distributed among five locations with and four locations without sea otters. Both sea urchin and kelp abundance differed significantly among locations with vs. without sea otters in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska. There was little (Aleutian Islands) or no (southeast Alaska) overlap between sites with and without sea otters, in plots of kelp density against urchin biomass. Despite intersite variation in the abundance of kelps and herbivores, these analyses demonstrate that sea otter predation has a predictable and broadly generalizable influence on the structure of Alaskan kelp forests. The percent cover of algal turf and suspension feeder assemblages also differed significantly (although less dramatically) between locations with and without sea otters. Temporal variation in community structure was assessed over periods of from 3 to 15 yr at sites in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska where sea otters were 1) continuously present, 2) continuously absent, or 3) becoming reestablished because of natural range expansion. Kelp and sea urchin abundance remained largely unchanged at most sites where sea otters were continuously present or absent, the one exception being at Torch Bay (southeast Alaska), where kelp abundance varied significantly through time and urchin abundance varied significantly among sites because of episodic and patchy disturbances. In contrast, kelp and sea urchin abundances changed significantly, and in the expected directions, at sites that were being recolonized by sea otters. Sea urchin biomass declined by 50% in the Aleutian Islands and by nearly 100% in southeast Alaska following the spread of sea otters into previously unoccupied habitats. In response to these different rates and magnitudes of urchin reduction by sea otter predation, increases in kelp abundance were abrupt and highly significant in southeast Alaska but much smaller and slower over similar time periods in the Aleutian Islands. The different kelp colonization rates between southeast Alaska and the Aleutian Islands appear to be caused by large—scale differences in echinoid recruitment coupled with size—selective predation by sea otters for larger urchins. The length of urchin jaws (correlated with test diameter, r2 = 0.968) in sea otter scats indicates that sea urchins <15—20 mm test diameter are rarely eaten by foraging sea otters. Sea urchin populations in the Aleutian Islands included high densities of small individuals (<20 mm test diameter) at all sites and during all years sampled, whereas in southeast Alaska similarly sized urchins were absent from most populations during most years. Small (<30—35 mm test diameter) tetracycline—marked urchins in the Aleutian Islands grew at a maximum rate of °10 mm/yr; thus the population must have significant recruitment annually, or at least every several years. In contrast, echinoid recruitment in southeast Alaska was more episodic, with many years to perhaps decades separating significant events. Our findings help explain regional differences in recovery rates of kelp forests following recolonization by sea otters.
","language":"English","publisher":"Ecological Society of America","doi":"10.2307/2937159","usgsCitation":"Estes, J.A., and Duggins, D., 1995, Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm: Ecological Monographs, v. 65, p. 75-100, https://doi.org/10.2307/2937159.","productDescription":"26 p.","startPage":"75","endPage":"100","numberOfPages":"26","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":131311,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -139.5266472717033,\n 60.402986386324756\n ],\n [\n -179.9,\n 63.478207794258054\n ],\n [\n -179.9,\n 50.18368072295371\n ],\n [\n -130.14399121638223,\n 55.21307639603333\n ],\n [\n -139.5266472717033,\n 60.402986386324756\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"65","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aaee4b07f02db66c824","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Estes, J. A.","contributorId":53319,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Estes","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":316335,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Duggins, D. O.","contributorId":39322,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Duggins","given":"D. O.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":316334,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":81558,"text":"81558 - 1995 - Modeling the dynamics of marine species: the importance of incorporating larval dispersal","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:03","indexId":"81558","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Modeling the dynamics of marine species: the importance of incorporating larval dispersal","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae.","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"CRC Press","usgsCitation":"Gaines, S., and Lafferty, K.D., 1995, Modeling the dynamics of marine species: the importance of incorporating larval dispersal, chap. of Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae., p. 389-412.","productDescription":"p. 389-412","startPage":"389","endPage":"412","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128815,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b05e4b07f02db6999b6","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"McEdward, L.","contributorId":113952,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McEdward","given":"L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":504266,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1}],"authors":[{"text":"Gaines, S.D.","contributorId":22281,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gaines","given":"S.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":295604,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Lafferty, K. D.","contributorId":58213,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Lafferty","given":"K.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":295605,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":94823,"text":"94823 - 1995 - Birds of large floodplain forests: Local and regional habitat associations on the upper Mississippi River","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:03:59","indexId":"94823","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":21,"text":"Thesis"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":28,"text":"Thesis"},"title":"Birds of large floodplain forests: Local and regional habitat associations on the upper Mississippi River","docAbstract":"Abstract not submitted to date","language":"English","publisher":"Iowa State University","usgsCitation":"Knutson, M.G., 1995, Birds of large floodplain forests: Local and regional habitat associations on the upper Mississippi River.","costCenters":[{"id":606,"text":"Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128105,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a2ae4b07f02db611f98","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Knutson, M. G.","contributorId":55375,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Knutson","given":"M.","email":"","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":298543,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":81546,"text":"81546 - 1995 - Seed germination patterns in fire prone Mediterranean climate regions,","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:02","indexId":"81546","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Seed germination patterns in fire prone Mediterranean climate regions,","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Ecology and Biogeography of Mediterranean Ecosystems in Chile, California and Australia.","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Verlag","publisherLocation":"New York, NY","usgsCitation":"Keeley, J., 1995, Seed germination patterns in fire prone Mediterranean climate regions,, chap. of Ecology and Biogeography of Mediterranean Ecosystems in Chile, California and Australia., p. 239-273.","productDescription":"p. 239-273","startPage":"239","endPage":"273","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128077,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ac8e4b07f02db67c165","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Arroyo, M.T.K","contributorId":111545,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Arroyo","given":"M.T.K","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":504250,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Zedler, P.H.","contributorId":82251,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zedler","given":"P.H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":504249,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Fox, M.D.","contributorId":113138,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fox","given":"M.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":504251,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":3}],"authors":[{"text":"Keeley, Jon E. 0000-0002-4564-6521","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4564-6521","contributorId":69082,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Keeley","given":"Jon E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":295577,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1001158,"text":"1001158 - 1995 - Effect of a commonly-used nest marker on nest success of ducks in prairie Canada","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-11-14T00:57:08.755854","indexId":"1001158","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1163,"text":"Canadian Field-Naturalist","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Effect of a commonly-used nest marker on nest success of ducks in prairie Canada","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club","usgsCitation":"Greenwood, R.J., and Sargeant, A., 1995, Effect of a commonly-used nest marker on nest success of ducks in prairie Canada: Canadian Field-Naturalist, v. 109, no. 4, p. 437-440.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"437","endPage":"440","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":422543,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/357649"},{"id":128744,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"109","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a4be4b07f02db6257e0","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Greenwood, R. J.","contributorId":74326,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Greenwood","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":310616,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Sargeant, A.B.","contributorId":13171,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sargeant","given":"A.B.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":310615,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":94800,"text":"94800 - 1995 - Hawaii's endemic birds","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":94800,"text":"94800 - 1995 - Hawaii's endemic birds","indexId":"94800","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"title":"Hawaii's endemic birds"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70148108,"text":"70148108 - 1995 - Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems","indexId":"70148108","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"title":"Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70148108,"text":"70148108 - 1995 - Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems","indexId":"70148108","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"title":"Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-04-19T10:51:54","indexId":"94800","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Hawaii's endemic birds","docAbstract":"The endemic landbirds of Hawaii, particularly the Hawaiian honeycreepers, an endemic subfamily of the cardueline finches, are one of the world's most dramatic examples of adaptive radiation and speciation (see glossary) in island ecosystems (Freed et al. 1987; Scott et al. 1988). From what is believed to have been a single successful colonization of the Hawaiian Archipelago by an ancestral species from North America, the honeycreepers evolved into a diverse array of species and subspecies of birds with bills ranging from thick, seed-eating beaks of the palila (Loxioides bailleui), to small insectivorous bills as seen on the `amakihi (Hemignathus virens), woodpecker-like adaptations of the `akiapola`au (H. munroi), and large, decurved nectar-feeding bills of the `i`iwi (Vestiaria coccinea).
In addition to the honeycreepers, the historically documented endemic Hawaiian avifauna included three seabirds, several waterfowl, two raptors, and perching birds that include a species of crow, and representatives of Old World flycatchers, honeyeaters, and thrushes. In all, at least 71 endemic species and subspecies of Hawaiian birds existed at the time of Captain Cook's arrival in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Now, however, 76% of the Hawaiian birds are either extinct or endangered, and several of the remaining unlisted species are showing significant population declines.
The arrival of humans to the Hawaiian Islands--starting with the Polynesians more than 1,500 years ago and continuing following European contact--drastically changed many natural ecosystems, leading not only to the extinction of many plant and animal species, but also to a significant reduction in both range and abundance for many other taxa. Originally, the Hawaiian birds were found in all habitat zones on each island, but today few native forest birds are found below 610-m (2,000-ft) elevation, and many of the wetland areas that once provided abundant habitat for waterbirds have been destroyed.
Of the historically documented 71 taxa of endemic Hawaiian birds, 23 are now extinct, and 30 of the remaining 48 species and subspecies are listed as endangered or threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS 1992), many with few or only single populations remaining (Fig. 1; Table 1; Table 2). Studies of recently discovered fossil bird bones have further identified nearly 40 additional species of Hawaiian birds never seen alive by the post-Cook naturalists; many of these became extinct after the Polynesians arrived (Olson and James 1982; H. James, Smithsonian Institution, personal communication).
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Deposition of carcasses declined logarithmically with time after the original event. Since fresh carcasses were more likely to be removed between counts than older carcasses, persistence rates increased logarithmically over time. Scavenging appeared to be the primary cause of carcass removal, followed by burial in beach debris and sand. Along-shore transport was negligible. We present an equation which estimates the number of carcasses deposited at time zero from beach surveys conducted some time later, using non-linear persistence rates that are a function of time. We use deposition rates to model the accumulation of beached carcasses, accounting for further deposition subsequent to the original event. Finally, we present a general method for extrapolating from a single count the number of carcasses cumulatively deposited on surveyed beaches, and discuss how our results can be used to assess the magnitude of mass seabird mortality events from beach surveys.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0025-326X(95)00072-U","usgsCitation":"van Pelt, T.I., and Piatt, J.F., 1995, Deposition and persistence of beachcast seabird carcasses: Marine Pollution Bulletin, v. 30, no. 12, p. 794-802, https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(95)00072-U.","productDescription":"9 p.","startPage":"794","endPage":"802","costCenters":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":337074,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Resurrection Bay","volume":"30","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58c12663e4b014cc3a3d3529","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"van Pelt, Thomas I.","contributorId":13392,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"van Pelt","given":"Thomas","email":"","middleInitial":"I.","affiliations":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":681305,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Piatt, John F. 0000-0002-4417-5748 jpiatt@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4417-5748","contributorId":3025,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Piatt","given":"John","email":"jpiatt@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[{"id":116,"text":"Alaska Science Center Biology MFEB","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":117,"text":"Alaska Science Center Biology WTEB","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":681306,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70174715,"text":"70174715 - 1995 - Year-to-year fluctuation of the spring phytoplankton bloom in south San Francisco Bay: An example of ecological variability at the land-sea interface","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-09-21T09:02:49","indexId":"70174715","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Year-to-year fluctuation of the spring phytoplankton bloom in south San Francisco Bay: An example of ecological variability at the land-sea interface","docAbstract":"Estuaries are transitional ecosystems at the interface of the terrestrial and marine realms. Their unique physiographic position gives rise to large spatial variability, and to dynamic temporal variability resulting, in part, from a variety of forces and fluxes at the oceanic and terrestrial boundaries. River flow, in particular, is an important mechanism for delivering watershed-derived materials such as fresh water, sediments, and nutrients; each of these quantities in turn directly influences the physical structure and biological communities of estuaries. With this setting in mind, we consider here the general proposition that estuarine variability at the yearly time scale can be caused by annual fluctuations in river flow. We use a “long-term” (15-year) time series of phytoplankton biomass variability in South San Francisco Bay (SSFB), a lagoon-type estuary in which phytoplankton primary production is the largest source of organic carbon (Jassby et al. 1993).
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Ecological time","language":"English","publisher":"Springer ","doi":"10.1007/978-1-4615-1769-6_10","usgsCitation":"Cloern, J.E., and Jassby, A.D., 1995, Year-to-year fluctuation of the spring phytoplankton bloom in south San Francisco Bay: An example of ecological variability at the land-sea interface, chap. of Ecological time, p. 139-149, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1769-6_10.","productDescription":"11 p.","startPage":"139","endPage":"149","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":552,"text":"San Francisco Bay-Delta","active":false,"usgs":true},{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":5079,"text":"Pacific Regional Director's Office","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":325273,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","otherGeospatial":"South San Francisco Bay","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -122.39044189453124,\n 37.785910776551354\n ],\n [\n -122.35610961914062,\n 37.81629348024509\n ],\n [\n -122.30255126953126,\n 37.8271414168374\n ],\n [\n -122.32177734375,\n 37.79893346559687\n ],\n [\n -122.25860595703125,\n 37.792422407988575\n ],\n [\n -122.21466064453125,\n 37.763115548102924\n ],\n [\n -122.18582153320312,\n 37.69577435330179\n ],\n [\n -122.14462280273436,\n 37.61640705577992\n ],\n [\n -122.13912963867188,\n 37.580500850738936\n ],\n [\n -122.09655761718749,\n 37.58811876638322\n ],\n [\n -122.05947875976562,\n 37.51844023887861\n ],\n [\n -121.95510864257811,\n 37.47594794878128\n ],\n [\n -121.92901611328125,\n 37.45632796865522\n ],\n [\n -122.02102661132814,\n 37.42906945530329\n ],\n [\n -122.08831787109375,\n 37.43997405227057\n ],\n [\n -122.13775634765625,\n 37.48575600784828\n ],\n [\n -122.244873046875,\n 37.55111016010861\n ],\n [\n -122.33276367187499,\n 37.59682400108367\n ],\n [\n -122.3712158203125,\n 37.606616172899535\n ],\n [\n -122.39593505859376,\n 37.678386041261184\n ],\n [\n -122.39593505859376,\n 37.70772645289051\n ],\n [\n -122.36297607421874,\n 37.73162487017297\n ],\n [\n -122.39730834960938,\n 37.77505678240509\n ],\n [\n -122.39044189453124,\n 37.785910776551354\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5788b7c2e4b0d27deb387069","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Cloern, James E. 0000-0002-5880-6862 jecloern@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5880-6862","contributorId":1488,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cloern","given":"James","email":"jecloern@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":37277,"text":"WMA - Earth System Processes Division","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":642528,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jassby, Alan D.","contributorId":66403,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jassby","given":"Alan","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":642529,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70174939,"text":"70174939 - 1995 - Ecosystem trends in the Colorado Rockies","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":70174939,"text":"70174939 - 1995 - Ecosystem trends in the Colorado Rockies","indexId":"70174939","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"title":"Ecosystem trends in the Colorado Rockies"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70148108,"text":"70148108 - 1995 - Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems","indexId":"70148108","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"title":"Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70148108,"text":"70148108 - 1995 - Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems","indexId":"70148108","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"title":"Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-04-19T09:55:39","indexId":"70174939","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Ecosystem trends in the Colorado Rockies","docAbstract":"Biological conservation is increasingly moving toward an ecosystem and landscape approach, recognizing the prohibitive cost and difficulty of a species-by-species approach (LaRoe 1993). Also, statewide (e.g., Gap Analysis Program) and national surveys (e.g., Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program or EMAP) are conducted at a scale and level of resolution that do not meet the needs of most small land-management units that require detailed information at the ecosystem and landscape scale (Stohlgren 1994). The Colorado Rockies are an ideal outdoor laboratory for ecosystem science and management. The escalating environmental threats described in this article compelled us to design a landscape-scale assessment of the status and trends of biotic resources.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"National Biological Service","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","usgsCitation":"Stohlgren, T.J., Baron, J., Kittel, T.G., and Binkley, D., 1995, Ecosystem trends in the Colorado Rockies, chap. of Our living resources: A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems, p. 310-312.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"310","endPage":"312","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":291,"text":"Fort Collins Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":325552,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":325551,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.webharvest.gov/peth04/20041019015728/https://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/index.htm","linkHelpText":"Archived website"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57934444e4b0eb1ce79e8be8","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"LaRoe, Edward T.","contributorId":112276,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"LaRoe","given":"Edward","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":691921,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Farris, Gaye S.","contributorId":84410,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Farris","given":"Gaye","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[{"id":455,"text":"National Wetlands Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":691922,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Puckett, Catherine E. cpuckett@usgs.gov","contributorId":4629,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Puckett","given":"Catherine","email":"cpuckett@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":691923,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Doran, Peter D.","contributorId":17533,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Doran","given":"Peter","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":691924,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Mac, Michael J.","contributorId":16772,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mac","given":"Michael","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":691925,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":5}],"authors":[{"text":"Stohlgren, Thomas J. 0000-0001-9696-4450 stohlgrent@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9696-4450","contributorId":2902,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Stohlgren","given":"Thomas","email":"stohlgrent@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":291,"text":"Fort Collins Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":643247,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Baron, Jill S. 0000-0002-5902-6251 jill_baron@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5902-6251","contributorId":822,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Baron","given":"Jill S.","email":"jill_baron@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":291,"text":"Fort Collins Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":643248,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Kittel, Timothy G.F.","contributorId":66612,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kittel","given":"Timothy","email":"","middleInitial":"G.F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":643249,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Binkley, Dan","contributorId":102419,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Binkley","given":"Dan","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":643250,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70175202,"text":"70175202 - 1995 - Continuous flow measurements using ultrasonic velocity meters - an update","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-08-02T14:21:09","indexId":"70175202","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3914,"text":"Interagency Ecological Program Newsletter","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Continuous flow measurements using ultrasonic velocity meters - an update","docAbstract":"An article in the summer 1993 Newsletter described USGS work to continously monitor tidal flows in the delta using ultrasonic velocity meters. This article updates progress since 1993, including new installations, results of data analysis, damage during this year's high flows, and the status of each site.
","language":"English","publisher":"Interagency Ecological Program for the Sacramento–San Joaquin Estuary","usgsCitation":"Oltmann, R., 1995, Continuous flow measurements using ultrasonic velocity meters - an update: Interagency Ecological Program Newsletter, v. Autumn 1995, p. 22-25.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"22","endPage":"25","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":552,"text":"San Francisco Bay-Delta","active":false,"usgs":true},{"id":5079,"text":"Pacific Regional Director's Office","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":325947,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":325946,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://www.water.ca.gov/iep/newsletters/1995/fall/page22.pdf"}],"volume":"Autumn 1995","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57a1c42ee4b006cb45552c04","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Oltmann, Rick","contributorId":173343,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Oltmann","given":"Rick","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":644332,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1015737,"text":"1015737 - 1995 - Values associated with management of Yellowstone cutthroat trout in Yellowstone National Park","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-11-28T11:58:21.999047","indexId":"1015737","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1321,"text":"Conservation Biology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Values associated with management of Yellowstone cutthroat trout in Yellowstone National Park","docAbstract":"Recent emphasis on a holistic view of natural systems and their management is associated with a growing appreciation of the role of human values in these systems. In the past, resource management has been perceived as a dichotomy between extraction (harvest) and nonconsumptive use, but this appears to be an oversimplified view of natural-cultural systems. The recreational fishery for Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri) in Yellowstone National Park is an example of the effects of management on a natural-cultural system. Although angler harvest has been drastically reduced or prohibited, the recreational value of Yellowstone cutthroat trout estimated by angling factors (such as landing rate or size) ranks above that of all other sport species in Yellowstone National Park. To maintain an indigenous fishery resource of this quality with hatchery propagation is not economically or technically feasible. Nonconsumptive uses of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout including fish-watching and intangible values, such as existence demand, provide additional support for protection of wild Yellowstone cutthroat trout populations. A management strategy that reduces resource extraction has provided a means to sustain a quality recreational fishery while enhancing values associated with the protection of natural systems.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09010159.x","usgsCitation":"Gresswell, R., and Liss, W., 1995, Values associated with management of Yellowstone cutthroat trout in Yellowstone National Park: Conservation Biology, v. 9, no. 1, p. 159-165, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09010159.x.","productDescription":"7 p.","startPage":"159","endPage":"165","costCenters":[{"id":290,"text":"Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":134163,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Wyoming","otherGeospatial":"Yellowstone National Park","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -108.79668471474619,\n 43.586764605429835\n ],\n [\n -108.79668471474619,\n 45.30919574717268\n ],\n [\n -111.95894999069165,\n 45.30919574717268\n ],\n [\n -111.95894999069165,\n 43.586764605429835\n ],\n [\n -108.79668471474619,\n 43.586764605429835\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"9","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-01-19","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a14e4b07f02db602c59","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Gresswell, Robert E.","contributorId":13194,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gresswell","given":"Robert E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":323140,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Liss, W.J.","contributorId":75887,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Liss","given":"W.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":323141,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1015830,"text":"1015830 - 1995 - The new world mine and grizzly bears: A window on ecosystem management","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:41","indexId":"1015830","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2251,"text":"Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The new world mine and grizzly bears: A window on ecosystem management","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","usgsCitation":"Mattson, D., 1995, The new world mine and grizzly bears: A window on ecosystem management: Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law, v. 15, p. 267-293.","productDescription":"p. 267-293","startPage":"267","endPage":"293","numberOfPages":"27","costCenters":[{"id":290,"text":"Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":133502,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"15","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a80e4b07f02db649aed","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Mattson, D.J.","contributorId":57022,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mattson","given":"D.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":323207,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70181811,"text":"70181811 - 1995 - Pinyon-juniper woodlands","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-01-23T10:36:54","indexId":"70181811","displayToPublicDate":"1995-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1995","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":32,"text":"General Technical Report","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":1}},"seriesNumber":"RM-GTR-268","chapter":"6","title":"Pinyon-juniper woodlands","docAbstract":"Pinyon-juniper woodlands are one of the largest ecosystems in the Southwest and in the Middle Rio Grande Basin (Fig. 1). The woodlands have been important to the region's inhabitants since prehistoric times for a variety of natural resources and amenities. The ecosystems have not been static; their distributions, stand characteristics, and site conditions have been altered by changes in climatic patterns and human use and, often, abuse. Management of these lands since European settlement has varied from light exploitation and benign neglect, to attempts to remove the trees in favor of forage for livestock, and then to a realization that these lands contain useful resources and should be managed accordingly.
Land management agencies are committed to ecosystem management. While there are several definitions of ecosystem management, the goal is to use ecological approaches to create and maintain diverse, productive, and healthy ecosystems (Kaufmann et al. 1994). Ecosystem management recognizes that people are an integral part of the system and that their needs must be considered. Ecological approaches are central to the concept, but our understanding of basic woodland ecology is incomplete, and there are different opinions and interpretations of existing information (Gottfried and Severson 1993). There are many questions concerning proper ecosystem management of the pinyon-juniper woodlands and how managers can achieve these goals (Gottfried and Severson 1993). While the broad concept of ecosystem management generally is accepted, the USDA Forest Service, other public land management agencies, American Indian tribes, and private landowners may have differing definitions of what constitutes desired conditions.
Key questions about the pinyon-juniper ecosystems remain unanswered. Some concern the basic dynamics of biological and physical components of the pinyon-juniper ecosystems. Others concern the distribution of woodlands prior to European settlement and changes since the introduction of livestock and fire control. This relates to whether tree densities have been increasing or whether trees are invading grasslands and, to a lesser extent, drier ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests. In areas where woodlands were heavily used by American Indians for fuelwood prior to European contact, the advance of pinyon and juniper could represent the slow recovery from intensive use (Samuels and Betancourt 1982). There are numerous questions regarding declines in watershed condition related to changes in pinyon-juniper tree stand densities and to the density and composition of understory vegetation. There are different opinions about proper management of woodland ecosystems. Should these lands be managed for a single resource, such as forage for livestock production, or managed for sustained production of multiple resource products and amenities? Depending on site and stand conditions, the woodlands can produce variable quantities of fuelwood, pinyon nuts, wildlife habitat, forage for livestock, and cover for watershed protection. Management must also consider increasing recreational demands, threatened and endangered species, and protection of archeological sites. Many pinyon-juniper woodland watersheds in New Mexico have unsatisfactory soil and watershed conditions (USDA Forest Service 1993); managers must develop restoration procedures that recognize the value of woodland ecosystems.
The concerns, questions, and conflicts surrounding management of pinyon-juniper lands, as well as the ecological foundations of ecosystem management, require that all interested parties reevaluate attitudes toward the woodlands. Ecosystem management goals and concepts recognize diversity. Pinyonjuniper woodlands are diverse, and stand characteristics and site productivities vary. Management objectives and prescriptions must evaluate the potential of each site, and decisions must be based on sound scientific information. This information is often unavailable. Therefore, this paper describes what we do know about the characteristics, distribution, and ecology of pinyon-juniper woodlands, including the effects of natural and human factors, within the southwestern United States and particularly the Middle Rio Grande Basin. It also reviews some past and present management options in this widespread and important vegetation type. The review draws on research and management information from the Rio Grande Basin and from similar areas in the Southwest and adjacent regions. It does not attempt to review all of the relevant literature; additional sources can be found within the articles cited in the References.
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We indexed body size by calculating PC1 scores based on either culmen and tarsus, or culmen, tarsus, and mass. Gosling (PC scores based on culmen and tarsus) size was positively correlated with resighting rate (P = 0.005), indicating that larger goslings survived at a higher rate than did smaller goslings. Gosling size was correlated with adult size of the same individuals (P = 0.0004). Larger goslings were more likely to breed as 2- or 3-yr-olds than were medium or small goslings (P = 0.008). Larger adult brant laid more eggs (P = 0.03) and produced clutches with greater total volume (P = 0.03) than did smaller brant. Given the important role of foraging environment in growth of goslings, these data suggest an important role of early environment in determining life-history traits.
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