The Exxron Valdez oil spill (EVOS) on 24 March 1989 threatened extensive areas of prime sea otter (Enhydra lutris) habitat along the coasts of south-central Alaska. The spill occurred in northeastern Prince William Sound (PWS), and oil moved rapidly south and west through PWS into the Gulf of Alaska. Much of the coastline of western PWS was heavily oiled, and the slick eventually spread as far southwest as Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula (Galt and Payton 1990; Morris and Loughlin, Chapter 1). All coastal waters affected by the spill were inhabited by sea otters.
Concern for the survival of sea otters following the oil spill was immediate and well founded. Sea otters are particularly vulnerable to oil contamination because they rely on pelage rather than blubber for insulation, and oiling drastically reduces the insulative value of the fur (Costa and Kooyman 1982; Siniff et al. 1982; Geraci and Williams 1990). Within days of the spill, recovery of oiled live otters and carcasses began. During the several months following the spill, sea otters became symbolic of the mortality associated with the spilled oil, and of the hope for rescue and recovery of injured wildlife (Batten 1990).
An extensive sea otter rescue and rehabilitation effort was mounted in the weeks and months following the spill. Handling and treatment of the captive sea otters posed an enormous and difficult challenge, given the large number of otters held at the facilities and minimal prior experience in caring for oiled sea otters. Rehabilitation of sea otters was a separate effort from the postspill studies designed to evaluate injury to the otter populations and is not addressed in this chapter only as it relates to evaluation of damage assessment studies. Detailed information on the rehabilitation effort is presented in Bayha and Kormendy (1990) and Williams and Davis (1990).
Sea otters retained a high profile in the Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) studies largely because the initial injury to the sea otter population was readily demonstrable, but also because of concerns about long-term damages. The scope of the postspill studies to assess oil-related damages to sea otters was extensive: From 1989 through 1993, more than $3,000,000 was spent, and more than 20 scientists were involved in a comprehensive research program. The studies were predominantly directed at sea otter populations in PWS.
Damages to sea otters generally can be classified as either acute, defined as spill-related deaths occurring during the spill, or chronic, defined as longer term lethal or sublethal oil-related injuries. Studies of acute damages focused on estimating the total initial loss of sea otters. Characterization of the pathologies associated with exposure to oil was a secondary goal of studies of acute effects. Chronic or longer term damages may have resulted from sublethal initial exposure or continued exposure to hydrocarbons persisting in the environment. Studies of chronic effects included evaluating abundance and distribution, survival and reproduction rates, foraging behavior, and pathological, physiological, and toxicological changes in the years following the spill.
The objective of this chapter is to review the studies conducted on sea otters in response to the EVOS and to synthesize the major findings of those studies relative to injury to the sea otter population associated with exposure to oil. We also provide recommendations for research to improve our understanding of the effects of future oil spills on Sea otter populations.
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The bibliography primarily includes publications between the early 1960s and early 1990s but does contain some earlier references not found in another extensive bibliography published in 1964. This bibliography will be a valuable tool, especially to water users and environmental scientists in North America where zebra mussels have recently invaded and become established.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Journal of Shellfish Research","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","usgsCitation":"Schloesser, D.W., bij de Vaate, A., and Zimmerman, A., 1994, A bibliography of \"Dreissena polymorpha in European and Russian waters: 1964-1993\": Journal of Shellfish Research, v. 13, no. 1, p. 243-267.","productDescription":"p. 243-267","startPage":"243","endPage":"267","numberOfPages":"24","costCenters":[{"id":324,"text":"Great Lakes Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128648,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":266268,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3033310"}],"volume":"13","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b28e4b07f02db6b1318","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Schloesser, Don W.","contributorId":21485,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schloesser","given":"Don","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":309264,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"bij de Vaate, Abraham","contributorId":95422,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"bij de Vaate","given":"Abraham","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":309266,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Zimmerman, Ann","contributorId":91047,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zimmerman","given":"Ann","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":309265,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":96730,"text":"96730 - 1994 - Effectiveness of fences and culverts for protecting desert tortoises along California Highway 58:summary of 1993 field season","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:03:57","indexId":"96730","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"title":"Effectiveness of fences and culverts for protecting desert tortoises along California Highway 58:summary of 1993 field season","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","language":"English","collaboration":"Rept. to Calif. Energy Commission.","usgsCitation":"Boarman, W., 1994, Effectiveness of fences and culverts for protecting desert tortoises along California Highway 58:summary of 1993 field season, 30 p.","productDescription":"30 p.","startPage":"30","numberOfPages":"30","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":128250,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a4be4b07f02db62536a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Boarman, W.I.","contributorId":73523,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Boarman","given":"W.I.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":300146,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":93739,"text":"93739 - 1994 - Locating and managing peninsulas for nesting ducks","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-01-02T13:16:34","indexId":"93739","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"title":"Locating and managing peninsulas for nesting ducks","docAbstract":"The purpose of this extension bulletin is to guide the management of nesting ducks on peninsulas on public and private lands. Managing peninsulas for ducks is a relatively new strategy that was developed in the grassland region of western North America. Information contained in this bulletin is primarily from studies conducted by biologists working at the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service","publisherLocation":"Arlington, VA","usgsCitation":"Lokemoen, J.T., and Messmer, T., 1994, Locating and managing peninsulas for nesting ducks, 18 p.","productDescription":"18 p.","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128349,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a68e4b07f02db63b5e5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lokemoen, J. T.","contributorId":79049,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lokemoen","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":297853,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Messmer, T.A.","contributorId":17566,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Messmer","given":"T.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":297852,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":96729,"text":"96729 - 1994 - Environmental Assessment for Experimental Program to Shoot Ravens","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:03:57","indexId":"96729","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"title":"Environmental Assessment for Experimental Program to Shoot Ravens","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","language":"English","publisher":"Bureau of Land Management","publisherLocation":"Riverside, CA","usgsCitation":"Boarman, W., 1994, Environmental Assessment for Experimental Program to Shoot Ravens.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":128232,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a14e4b07f02db6025b2","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Boarman, W.I.","contributorId":73523,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Boarman","given":"W.I.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":300145,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":87346,"text":"87346 - 1994 - Biodiversity and ecosystem function in mediterranean-climate California,","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2013-01-18T15:26:43","indexId":"87346","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Biodiversity and ecosystem function in mediterranean-climate California,","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Biodiversity and Function in Mediterranean-type ecosystems.","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"Springer-Verlag","publisherLocation":"New York, NY","usgsCitation":"Keeley, J., and Swift, C.C., 1994, Biodiversity and ecosystem function in mediterranean-climate California,, chap. of Biodiversity and Function in Mediterranean-type ecosystems., p. 121-183.","productDescription":"p. 121-183","startPage":"121","endPage":"183","numberOfPages":"63","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128380,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a4be4b07f02db625e22","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Davis, G.","contributorId":17343,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Davis","given":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":505045,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Richardson, D.M.","contributorId":26660,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Richardson","given":"D.M.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":505046,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2}],"authors":[{"text":"Keeley, Jon E. 0000-0002-4564-6521","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4564-6521","contributorId":69082,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Keeley","given":"Jon E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":297719,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Swift, C. C.","contributorId":107639,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Swift","given":"C.","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":297720,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1007424,"text":"1007424 - 1994 - Comments on the proposed conservation of Hydromantes Gistel, 1848 by the designation of Salamandra genei Temminck & Schlegel, 1838 as the type species (Amphibia, Caudata)","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-11-09T13:21:00.086175","indexId":"1007424","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1110,"text":"Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Comments on the proposed conservation of Hydromantes Gistel, 1848 by the designation of Salamandra genei Temminck & Schlegel, 1838 as the type species (Amphibia, Caudata)","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature","usgsCitation":"Jennings, M., 1994, Comments on the proposed conservation of Hydromantes Gistel, 1848 by the designation of Salamandra genei Temminck & Schlegel, 1838 as the type species (Amphibia, Caudata): Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, v. 51, no. 2, p. 149-150.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"149","endPage":"150","numberOfPages":"2","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129835,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"51","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b24e4b07f02db6ae674","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Jennings, M.R.","contributorId":18296,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jennings","given":"M.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":315318,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1014715,"text":"1014715 - 1994 - Evaluation of mucus as a valid site to isolate Aeromonas salmonicida among asymptomatic populations of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-11-07T13:08:23.118672","indexId":"1014715","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1036,"text":"Biomedical Letters","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Evaluation of mucus as a valid site to isolate Aeromonas salmonicida among asymptomatic populations of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","usgsCitation":"Cipriano, R.C., Ford, L., Schachte, J.H., and Petrie, C., 1994, Evaluation of mucus as a valid site to isolate Aeromonas salmonicida among asymptomatic populations of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush): Biomedical Letters, v. 49, no. 195, p. 229-233.","productDescription":"5 p.","startPage":"229","endPage":"233","numberOfPages":"5","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129517,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"49","issue":"195","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a09e4b07f02db5fad05","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Cipriano, R. C.","contributorId":12400,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cipriano","given":"R.","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":320995,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Ford, L.A.","contributorId":25510,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ford","given":"L.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":320996,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Schachte, J. H.","contributorId":27399,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Schachte","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":320997,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Petrie, C.","contributorId":62960,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Petrie","given":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":320998,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":93755,"text":"93755 - 1994 - Waterfowl botulism--a brief summary","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-05-17T14:33:47","indexId":"93755","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"title":"Waterfowl botulism--a brief summary","docAbstract":"Botulism is a food poisoning caused by the ingestion of the toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum of any of six strains, designated A through F. The disease, as it occurs in epidemic proportion in wild birds, is most commonly of the C type, although outbreaks caused by type E botulism have been observed on the Great Lakes.
\nC. botulinum is a widely distributed anaerobic bacterium which is capable of existence for many years in spore form. Its vegetative cells grow and synthesize toxin, whenever and wherever the proper conditions exist in their environment. Outbreaks of botulism occur when aquatic birds consume this toxin which has been preformed in their food. Botulism is, therefore, an intoxication rather than an infection and is not a contagious disease. Botulism can be diagnosed conclusively only by demonstration of the toxin in the blood or serum of live affected birds, and a diagnostic laboratory should be contacted to confirm field diagnoses. A conclusive diagnosis cannot be reached by demonstrating the toxin or the organism in dead animals.
\nThe 'microenvironment concept' assumes that C. botulinum produces toxin in small, discrete, particulate food items which provide the requirements for growth of the bacteria independent of the surrounding wetland environment and which protect the toxin from dilution or inactivation. Optimum conditions for C. botulinum growth and toxin production include the absence of oxygen, a temperature of 76 deg. to 98 deg. F and suitable organic media, especially those composed of animal protein. Such conditions may be met in decaying invertebrate carcasses even though external conditions are unfavorable for toxin production. Vertebrate carcasses also may provide suitable conditions for the production of toxin, and maggots collected from duck carcasses during botulism outbreaks frequently contain extremely high levels of toxin. In determining the specific source of toxin and recommending control measures in the dynamic, complex, and diverse conditions of specific wetland ecosystem where botulism occurs, one's conclusions must necessarily become more speculative. Possibilities for reducing waterfowl losses due to botulism--Complete elimination of the causative organism, C. botulinum, from the wetland ecosystem is neither practical nor possible. Control methods may sometimes be profitably directed at prevention of toxin production, and the quantity of suitable media can be influenced. Rising water levels may drown terrestrial invertebrates, or flood vegetation thereby releasing nutrients which stimulate the increase in aquatic invertebrate populations to unstable levels which collapse. In other situations decreasing water levels may increase the numbers of invertebrate carcasses by increasing water temperatures or salinity which had been marginal for survival of previously thriving invertebrate populations or by stranding invertebrates on mud flats subject to periodic wind flooding. Therefore, a basic and important step in controlling botulism is stabilization of the wetland ecosystem in order to avoid the accumulation of decaying animal protein, especially during periods when temperatures are favorable for toxin production in these media. This can sometimes be accomplished by water level manipulation.
\nIf toxin production cannot be controlled by reducing the quantity of suitable media, another step is to prevent the ingestion of the toxic food items. Birds may be chased or lured from areas of toxin source or areas can be made less attractive by rapid and complete drainage, or draw down to a stable shoreline, where wind flooding does not occur. Removal of vertebrate carcasses, especially those of birds dying during the outbreak, reduces the availability of toxic maggots but carcass removal must be carried out frequently and diligently.Prevention of the effects of the toxin can be accomplished in some instances. Some degree of active immunity can be produced by injections of specific toxoi
","language":"English","usgsCitation":"Pearson, G., and Jensen, W., 1994, Waterfowl botulism--a brief summary, 16 p.","productDescription":"16 p.","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":127841,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4778e4b07f02db47ef3a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Pearson, G.","contributorId":88300,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pearson","given":"G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":512545,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jensen, W.","contributorId":100778,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jensen","given":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":512546,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70184361,"text":"70184361 - 1994 - Experimental recovery of sea otter carcasses at Kodiak Island, Alaska, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-28T14:56:19","indexId":"70184361","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2671,"text":"Marine Mammal Science","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Experimental recovery of sea otter carcasses at Kodiak Island, Alaska, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill","docAbstract":"ound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million barrels of crude oil. Oil was
deposited on beaches nearly 700 km from the spill site (Galt and Payton 1990,
Piatt et al. 1990), affecting thousands of hectares of sea otter
(Enhydra lutris)
habitat. Two of the principal limitations in determining the initial effects of the
Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otter populations were a lack of recent population
data, and a lack of information on the proportion of the total number of sea
otters killed by the spill that were actually recovered.
ound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million barrels of crude oil. Oil was
deposited on beaches nearly 700 km from the spill site (Galt and Payton 1990,
Piatt et al. 1990), affecting thousands of hectares of sea otter
(Enhydra lutris)
habitat. Two of the principal limitations in determining the initial effects of the
Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otter populations were a lack of recent population
data, and a lack of information on the proportion of the total number of sea
otters killed by the spill that were actually recovered.
On 24 March 1989, the T/V Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million barrels of crude oil. Oil was deposited on beaches nearly 700 km from the spill site (Galt and Payton 1990, Piatt et al. 1990), affecting thousands of hectares of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) habitat. Two of the principal limitations in determining the initial effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otter populations were a lack of recent population data, and a lack of information on the proportion of the total number of sea otters killed by the spill that were actually recovered.
In late April and early May oil spread to the Kodiak Archipelago. With the oil came wildlife rescue, beach cleanup, and other spill-response activities including searches for dead birds and mammals. We took this opportunity to assess experimentally the recovery of sea otter carcasses in the Kodiak Island area. Specifically, we were interested in the proportion of the total number of dead sea otters the recovered carcasses represented.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1111/j.1748-7692.1994.tb00509.x","usgsCitation":"DeGange, A.R., Doroff, A.M., and Monson, D., 1994, Experimental recovery of sea otter carcasses at Kodiak Island, Alaska, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill: Marine Mammal Science, v. 10, no. 4, p. 492-496, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.1994.tb00509.x.","productDescription":"5 p.","startPage":"492","endPage":"496","costCenters":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":116,"text":"Alaska Science Center Biology MFEB","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":337009,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Kodiak Archipelago, Prince William Sound","volume":"10","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2006-08-26","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58c12663e4b014cc3a3d352d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"DeGange, Anthony R. tdegange@usgs.gov","contributorId":139765,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"DeGange","given":"Anthony","email":"tdegange@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":681164,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Doroff, Angela M.","contributorId":140660,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Doroff","given":"Angela","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[{"id":7058,"text":"Alaska Department of Fish and Game","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":681165,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Monson, Daniel H. 0000-0002-4593-5673 dmonson@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4593-5673","contributorId":140480,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Monson","given":"Daniel H.","email":"dmonson@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":116,"text":"Alaska Science Center Biology MFEB","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":681166,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":1014751,"text":"1014751 - 1994 - Differences in measurements of smolt development between wild and hatchery-reared juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) before and after saltwater exposure","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:08","indexId":"1014751","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1994","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1169,"text":"Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Differences in measurements of smolt development between wild and hatchery-reared juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) before and after saltwater exposure","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","collaboration":"95-090/PY96/TF","usgsCitation":"Shrimpton, J., Bernier, N., Iwama, G., and Randall, D., 1994, Differences in measurements of smolt development between wild and hatchery-reared juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) before and after saltwater exposure: Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, v. 51, p. 2170-2178.","productDescription":"p. 2170-2178","startPage":"2170","endPage":"2178","numberOfPages":"9","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129711,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"51","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a9ae4b07f02db65d787","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Shrimpton, J. M.","contributorId":10362,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Shrimpton","given":"J. M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":321087,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Bernier, N.J.","contributorId":83870,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bernier","given":"N.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":321089,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Iwama, G.K.","contributorId":57404,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Iwama","given":"G.K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":321088,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Randall, D.J.","contributorId":7656,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Randall","given":"D.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":321086,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ]}