Germanium is enriched in the following geologic environments:
(1) iron meteorites and terrestrial iron-nickel;
(2) sulfide ore deposits, particularly those hosted by sedimentary rocks;
(3) iron oxide deposits;
(4) oxidized zones of Ge-bearing sulfide deposits;
(5) pegmatites, greisens, and skarns; and
(6) coal and lignitized wood.
In silicate melts, Ge is highly siderophile in the presence of native iron-nickel; otherwise, it is highly lithophile. Among silicate minerals, Ge is concentrated in those having less polymerized silicate tetrahedra such as olivine and topaz. In deposits formed from hydrothermal solutions, Ge tends to be enriched mostly in either sulfides or in fluorine-bearing phases; it is thus concentrated both in some hydrothermal sulfide deposits and in pegmatites, greisens, and skarns. In sulfide deposits that formed from solutions having low to moderate sulfur activity, Ge is concentrated in sphalerite in amounts up to 3000 ppm. Sulfide deposits that formed from solutions having higher sulfur activity allowed Ge to either form its own sulfides, particularly with Cu, or to substitute for As, Sn, or other metals in sulfosalts. The Ge in hydrothermal fluids probably derives from enrichment during the fractional crystallization of igneous fluids, or is due to the incorporation of Ge from the country rocks, particularly from those containing organic material. Germanium bonds to lignin-derivative organic compounds that are found in peat and lignite, accounting for its common concentration in coals and related organic material. Germanium is precipitated from water together with iron hydroxide, accounting for its concentration in some sedimentary and supergene iron oxide deposits. It also is able to substitute for Fe in magnetite in a variety of geologic environments. In the oxidized zone of Ge-bearing sulfide deposits, Ge is concentrated in oxides, hydroxides, and hydroxy-sulfates, sometimes forming its own minerals. It is particularly enriched in some iron- and manganese-bearing oxides and hydroxides, including goethite (up to 5300 ppm) and hematite (up to 7000 ppm).
We have estimated the source parameters of 53 microearthquakes recorded in July 1983 which were aftershocks of the Miramichi, New Brunswick, earthquake that occurred on 9 January 1982. These events were recorded by local three-component digital seismographs at 400 sps/component from 2-Hz velocity transducers sited directly on glacially scoured crystalline basement outcrop. Hypocentral distances are typically less than 5 km, and the hypocenters and the seven digital seismograph stations established all lie essentially within the boundaries of a granitic pluton that encompasses the faults that ruptured during the main shock and major aftershocks. The P-wave velocity is typically 5 km/sec at the surface and at least 6 km/sec at depths greater than about 1 km.
","language":"English","publisher":"Seismological Society of America","doi":"10.1785/BSSA0750061535","issn":"00371106","usgsCitation":"Cranswick, E., Wetmiller, R., and Boatwright, J., 1985, High-frequency observations and source parameters of microearthquakes recorded at hard-rock sites: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 75, no. 6, p. 1535-1567, https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0750061535.","productDescription":"33 p.","startPage":"1535","endPage":"1567","numberOfPages":"33","costCenters":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":329355,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article/75/6/1535/118744/High-frequency-observations-and-source-parameters"},{"id":220618,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Canada","otherGeospatial":"Miramichi","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -65.91437956310268,\n 47.268437041340945\n ],\n [\n -65.91437956310268,\n 46.792931091368445\n ],\n [\n -65.12336393810268,\n 46.792931091368445\n ],\n [\n -65.12336393810268,\n 47.268437041340945\n ],\n [\n -65.91437956310268,\n 47.268437041340945\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"75","issue":"6","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a2e7ee4b0c8380cd5c5bd","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Cranswick, Edward","contributorId":15611,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cranswick","given":"Edward","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365074,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Wetmiller, Robert","contributorId":104217,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wetmiller","given":"Robert","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365075,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Boatwright, John 0000-0002-6931-5241 boat@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6931-5241","contributorId":1938,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Boatwright","given":"John","email":"boat@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":237,"text":"Earthquake Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":365073,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":1007496,"text":"1007496 - 1985 - Consumption of aquatic plants by the West Indian manatee","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:19","indexId":"1007496","displayToPublicDate":"1985-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1985","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2180,"text":"Journal of Aquatic Plant Management","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Consumption of aquatic plants by the West Indian manatee","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Journal of Aquatic Plant Management","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","usgsCitation":"Etheridge, K., Rathbun, G.B., Powell, J.A., and Kochman, H., 1985, Consumption of aquatic plants by the West Indian manatee: Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, v. 23, p. 21-25.","productDescription":"p. 21-25","startPage":"21","endPage":"25","numberOfPages":"5","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129770,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"23","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b12e4b07f02db6a27b7","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Etheridge, K.","contributorId":36891,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Etheridge","given":"K.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":315469,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Rathbun, G. B.","contributorId":106044,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rathbun","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":315472,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Powell, J. A.","contributorId":69916,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Powell","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":315470,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Kochman, H. I.","contributorId":88296,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kochman","given":"H. I.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":315471,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":70013030,"text":"70013030 - 1985 - Transport and deposition of river sediment in the Changjiang estuary and adjacent continental shelf","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-12-01T01:15:52.72528","indexId":"70013030","displayToPublicDate":"1985-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1985","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1333,"text":"Continental Shelf Research","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Transport and deposition of river sediment in the Changjiang estuary and adjacent continental shelf","docAbstract":"Hydrographic observations, suspended-sediment measurements, and historical data indicate transport paths and sinks for sediment within the Changjiang estuary and adjacent shelf. Most of the sediment transported by the Changjiang to the ocean is carried through the North Channel of the South Branch. Sediment transport is directly related to river stage, but tidal phase (spring vs neap tides) also plays an important role. An estimated 40% of the sediment load in the river is deposited in the estuary, mostly in and seaward of the South Channel. The remaining sediment is deposited directly offshore during flood seasons, but much is resuspended and carried southward by subsequent winter storms.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0278-4343(85)90020-2","issn":"02784343","usgsCitation":"Milliman, J., Huang-ting, S., Zuo-sheng, Y., and Mead, R., 1985, Transport and deposition of river sediment in the Changjiang estuary and adjacent continental shelf: Continental Shelf Research, v. 4, no. 1-2, p. 37-45, https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4343(85)90020-2.","productDescription":"9 p.","startPage":"37","endPage":"45","numberOfPages":"9","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219949,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"4","issue":"1-2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505bb73be4b08c986b32712a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Milliman, John D.","contributorId":76735,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Milliman","given":"John D.","affiliations":[{"id":6706,"text":"Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":365120,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Huang-ting, S.","contributorId":33444,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Huang-ting","given":"S.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365118,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Zuo-sheng, Y.","contributorId":55571,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zuo-sheng","given":"Y.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365119,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Mead, R.H.","contributorId":80011,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mead","given":"R.H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365121,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":1013654,"text":"1013654 - 1985 - Determine combinations that will maximize fish farm income","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:04:15","indexId":"1013654","displayToPublicDate":"1985-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1985","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":855,"text":"Aquaculture Magazine","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Determine combinations that will maximize fish farm income","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Aquaculture Magazine","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","collaboration":"None/NF","usgsCitation":"Meade, J.W., 1985, Determine combinations that will maximize fish farm income: Aquaculture Magazine, v. 11, no. 2, p. 27-34.","productDescription":"p. 27-34","startPage":"27","endPage":"34","numberOfPages":"8","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":130224,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"11","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa8e4b07f02db667460","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Meade, J. W.","contributorId":38082,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Meade","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":318977,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70013026,"text":"70013026 - 1985 - Geology of the Brick Flat massive sulfide body, Iron Mountain cluster, West Shasta district, California","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-01-08T23:29:58.877559","indexId":"70013026","displayToPublicDate":"1985-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1985","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Geology of the Brick Flat massive sulfide body, Iron Mountain cluster, West Shasta district, California","docAbstract":"The Brick Flat massive sulfide body is one of a group of 8 individual bodies that constitute the Iron Mountain cluster in the S part of the West Shasta district. Before they were separated by postmineral faulting, 5 of the 8 sulfide bodies formed a single large deposit about 1375 m long with a mass of some 23 million metric tons. The pyritic Brick Flat sulfide body is one of the 5 faulted segements of this deposit. The Brick Flat massive sulfide lies within medium phenocryst rhyolite that is characteristic of the ore-bearing middle unit of the Balaklala Rhyolite. It is interpreted to be downfaulted a vertical distance of 75 to 85 m from the Old Mine sulfide-gossan orebody along the N-dipping Camden South fault. It is bounded in turn on its N side by another parallel fault, the Camden North, which drops the orebody down another 75 m to the level of the Richmond orebody. -from Author","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.80.8.2092","issn":"03610128","usgsCitation":"Albers, J.P., 1985, Geology of the Brick Flat massive sulfide body, Iron Mountain cluster, West Shasta district, California: Economic Geology, v. 80, no. 8, p. 2092-2099, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.80.8.2092.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"2092","endPage":"2099","numberOfPages":"8","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219889,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"80","issue":"8","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1985-12-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a2524e4b0c8380cd5867b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Albers, J. P.","contributorId":81505,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Albers","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365109,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70013033,"text":"70013033 - 1985 - Geochemical investigations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins in the subsurface environment at an abandoned wood-treatment facility","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-01-19T11:22:42","indexId":"70013033","displayToPublicDate":"1985-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1985","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1571,"text":"Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Geochemical investigations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins in the subsurface environment at an abandoned wood-treatment facility","docAbstract":"The discharge of effluents containing creosote and pentachlorophenol into two unlined surface impoundments at a wood-treatment facility in Pensacola, Florida, resulted in contamination of the underlying sand and gravel aquifer. These wastes contained significant amounts of chlorinated dioxins, such as isomers of hexa- and heptachlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, probably derived from commercial pentachlorophenol. Geochemical investigations of pond sludge, groundwater and porous media from the unsaturated and saturated zones indicated that these geologic materials were contaminated by chlorinated dioxins. The fate and movement of these compounds in the subsurface environment were studied using the technique of GC-MS-MS. Chlorinated dioxins migrated both vertically and horizontally in the subsurface and were present at considerable distances from the source of contamination. Concentrations of chlorinated dioxins in groundwater were several orders of magnitude lower than in porous media from the unsaturated and saturated zones. Ratios of the various isomers remained relatively constant in highly contaminated areas. However, in less contaminated areas, isomer ratios changed dramatically; at certain locations, one hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin isomer predominated. The environmental significance of these compounds is discussed.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1002/etc.5620040507","issn":"07307268","usgsCitation":"Pereira, W.E., Rostad, C., and Sisak, M., 1985, Geochemical investigations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins in the subsurface environment at an abandoned wood-treatment facility: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, v. 4, no. 5, p. 629-639, https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620040507.","productDescription":"11 p.","startPage":"629","endPage":"639","numberOfPages":"11","costCenters":[{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":219952,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"4","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1985-10-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a1649e4b0c8380cd5510b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Pereira, W. E.","contributorId":46981,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pereira","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365128,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Rostad, C.E.","contributorId":50939,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rostad","given":"C.E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365129,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Sisak, M.E.","contributorId":24912,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sisak","given":"M.E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":365127,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70013036,"text":"70013036 - 1985 - Water balance models in one-month-ahead streamflow forecasting","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-02-12T18:00:25","indexId":"70013036","displayToPublicDate":"1985-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1985","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3722,"text":"Water Resources Research","onlineIssn":"1944-7973","printIssn":"0043-1397","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Water balance models in one-month-ahead streamflow forecasting","docAbstract":"Techniques are tested that incorporate information from water balance models in making 1-month-ahead streamflow forecasts in New Jersey. The results are compared to those based on simple autoregressive time series models. The relative performance of the models is dependent on the month of the year in question. The water balance models are most useful for forecasts of April and May flows. For the stations in northern New Jersey, the April and May forecasts were made in order of decreasing reliability using the water-balance-based approaches, using the historical monthly means, and using simple autoregressive models. The water balance models were useful to a lesser extent for forecasts during the fall months. For the rest of the year the improvements in forecasts over those obtained using the simpler autoregressive models were either very small or the simpler models provided better forecasts. When using the water balance models, monthly corrections for bias are found to improve minimum mean-square-error forecasts as well as to improve estimates of the forecast conditional distributions.