Hydrologic characteristics of the Koehn Lake area were investigated to determine the effects of external stresses on the system. Unconsolidated deposits are more than 900 feet thick in the central part of the basin. Cantil Valley fault, in the central part of the basin, acts as a barrier to the flow of ground water.
Average annual recharge to aquifers from percolation of surface water and from underflow, between 1958 and 1976, was 10,200 acre-feet. Average annual consumptive use, between 1960 and 1976, was 32,000 acre-feet, 21,800 acre-feet more than the recharge, implying that average annual withdrawal from storage is about 22,000 acre-feet. Storage depletion in 1976 was 50,000 acre-feet, considerably higher than the average. The cumulative storage depletion has caused a decline in water levels and a pumping depression about 5 miles southwest of Koehn Lake.
Ground water in storage in 1976 was about 4 million acre-feet, and ground water in storage above the 500-foot depth excluding the saline water under Koehn Lake was about 2 million acre-feet.
Water samples were collected from 24 wells for chemical analysis. Comparison of analyses made during this study with historical water-quality analyses indicated no significant change. A recent reversal in ground-water gradient southwest of Koehn Lake may allow the saline water below Koehn Lake to invade the fresh-water aquifer.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wri7766","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Antelope Valley-East Kern Water Agency","usgsCitation":"Koehler, J.H., 1977, Ground water in the Koehn Lake area, Kern County, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 77-66, iv, 24 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wri7766.","productDescription":"iv, 24 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":426215,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1977/0066/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":159046,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1977/0066/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","county":"Kern County","otherGeospatial":"Koehn Lake","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -118.28118812316708,\n 35.55823540161309\n ],\n [\n -118.28118812316708,\n 34.71824057869662\n ],\n [\n -117.63244261457945,\n 34.71824057869662\n ],\n [\n -117.63244261457945,\n 35.55823540161309\n ],\n [\n -118.28118812316708,\n 35.55823540161309\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ab0e4b07f02db66da01","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Koehler, J. H.","contributorId":108108,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Koehler","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":199197,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":68541,"text":"ha276 - 1977 - Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":18237,"text":"ofr76461 - 1976 - Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts","indexId":"ofr76461","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"title":"Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":68541,"text":"ha276 - 1977 - Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts","indexId":"ha276","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"title":"Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-10-14T20:51:29.852733","indexId":"ha276","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":318,"text":"Hydrologic Atlas","code":"HA","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"276","title":"Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ha276","usgsCitation":"Brackley, R.A., 1977, Water resources of the Nashua and Souhegan River basins, Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Atlas 276, Report: 1 p.; 2 Plates: 57.79 × 40.00 inches and 33.50 × 43.68 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ha276.","productDescription":"Report: 1 p.; 2 Plates: 57.79 × 40.00 inches and 33.50 × 43.68 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":408353,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_15644.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":264333,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/276/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":264332,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/276/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":90159,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/276/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":90158,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/276/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"48000","country":"United States","state":"Massachusetts","otherGeospatial":"Nashua and Souhegan River basins","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -71.982,\n 42.3\n ],\n [\n -71.513,\n 42.3\n ],\n [\n -71.513,\n 42.712\n ],\n [\n -71.982,\n 42.712\n ],\n [\n -71.982,\n 42.3\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f4e4b07f02db5f045f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Brackley, Richard A.","contributorId":61792,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brackley","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":278426,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":25936,"text":"wri76131 - 1977 - Hydrologic considerations in dewatering and refilling Lake Carlton, Orange and Lake Counties, Florida","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-10-29T13:32:19","indexId":"wri76131","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":342,"text":"Water-Resources Investigations Report","code":"WRI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"76-131","title":"Hydrologic considerations in dewatering and refilling Lake Carlton, Orange and Lake Counties, Florida","docAbstract":"Lake Carlton straddles the line between Lake and Orange Counties in central Florida. The 382-acre (155-hectare) lake is highly eutrophic and subject to virtually perpetual algal blooms. The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission has proposed to restore the lake to a less eutrophic state by dewatering the lake long enough to allow the muck on its bottom to dry and compact. Lake Carlton would be permanently sealed off from Lake Beauclair which presently serves as a source of nutrient enriched water for Lake Carlton. On the assumption that the seasonal rainfall would be normal, and that the dewatering phase would begin on March 1, the predicted time required to dewater the lake at a pumping rate of 50,000 gallons (190 cubic meters) per minute is 21 days. The average rate of pumping required to maintain the lake in a dewatered condition is computed to be 2,400 gallons (9.08 cubic meters) per minute. If pumping is ended May 31, the predicted altitude to which the lake would recover by October 31 as a result of net natural input is 56.2 feet (17.1 meters) above sea level. Raising the lake level to 63 feet (19.2 meters) above sea level by October 31 would require that the net natural input be supplemented at an average rate of about 4,860 gallons (18.4 cubic meters) per minute between May 31 and October 31.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wri76131","usgsCitation":"Anderson, W., and Hughes, G., 1977, Hydrologic considerations in dewatering and refilling Lake Carlton, Orange and Lake Counties, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 76-131, iv, 31 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wri76131.","productDescription":"iv, 31 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":157153,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1976/0131/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":358901,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1976/0131/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Florida","county":"Lake County, Orange County","otherGeospatial":"Lake Carlton","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -82,\n 28.5\n ],\n [\n -81.5,\n 28.5\n ],\n [\n -81.5,\n 29\n ],\n [\n -82,\n 29\n ],\n [\n -82,\n 28.5\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a28e4b07f02db611052","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Anderson, Warren","contributorId":7712,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Anderson","given":"Warren","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":195511,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hughes, G.H.","contributorId":73975,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hughes","given":"G.H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":195512,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":28992,"text":"wri7641 - 1977 - Guide for data collection to calibrate a predictive digital ground-water model of the unconfined aquifer in and near the city of Modesto, California","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-07-16T12:04:34","indexId":"wri7641","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":342,"text":"Water-Resources Investigations Report","code":"WRI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"76-41","title":"Guide for data collection to calibrate a predictive digital ground-water model of the unconfined aquifer in and near the city of Modesto, California","docAbstract":"The city of Modesto encompasses about 12 square miles in the northeastern part of the San Joaquin Valley, Calif. The ground-water model encompasses about 542 square miles. In the Modesto area, ground water occurs in an unconfined aquifer a confined aquifer. both of which are composed of unconsolidated materials, and a consolidated-rock aquifer. Only the unconfined aquifer was modeled, using several simplifying assumptions concerning hydrologic conditions in the ground-water basin. A program is used that computes the net rate of recharge and discharge under steady-state conditions. The model was then modified until reasonable values of recharge and discharge were computed. Testing of the model indicated that simulated water levels were especially sensitive to tansmissivity, storage coefficient, irrigation return, and riverbed hydraulic conductivity; amond the parameters that affected water levels least were the vertical hydraulic conductivity and specific storage of the confining bed, the so-called E-clay. (Woodard-USGS)","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/wri7641","usgsCitation":"Page, R.W., 1977, Guide for data collection to calibrate a predictive digital ground-water model of the unconfined aquifer in and near the city of Modesto, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 76-41, v, 46 p. , https://doi.org/10.3133/wri7641.","productDescription":"v, 46 p. ","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":365615,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1976/0041/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":159171,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1976/0041/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","city":"Modesto","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -121.09954833984374,\n 37.57070524233116\n ],\n [\n -120.8441162109375,\n 37.57070524233116\n ],\n [\n -120.8441162109375,\n 37.690340943717715\n ],\n [\n -121.09954833984374,\n 37.690340943717715\n ],\n [\n -121.09954833984374,\n 37.57070524233116\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a7fe4b07f02db648b3b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Page, R. W.","contributorId":17215,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Page","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":200749,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70236548,"text":"70236548 - 1977 - Prospecting for ground water with Landsat images","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-09-09T15:01:05.709011","indexId":"70236548","displayToPublicDate":"1977-12-31T09:58:51","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":24,"text":"Conference Paper"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":19,"text":"Conference Paper"},"title":"Prospecting for ground water with Landsat images","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"Technical session on hydrological applications of remote sensors","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"World Water Conference","conferenceDate":"Mar 17, 1977","language":"English","usgsCitation":"Moore, G.K., 1977, Prospecting for ground water with Landsat images, in Technical session on hydrological applications of remote sensors, Mar 17, 1977, 16 p.","productDescription":"16 p.","costCenters":[{"id":222,"text":"Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":406456,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Moore, Gerald K.","contributorId":14377,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"Gerald","email":"","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":851362,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70009876,"text":"70009876 - 1977 - Solution of three-dimensional groundwater flow equations using the strongly implicit procedure","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-04-10T16:07:03.620859","indexId":"70009876","displayToPublicDate":"1977-10-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2342,"text":"Journal of Hydrology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Solution of three-dimensional groundwater flow equations using the strongly implicit procedure","docAbstract":"A three-dimensional numerical model has been coded to use the strongly implicit procedure for solving the finite-difference approximations to the ground-water flow equation. The model allows for: (1) the representation of each aquifer and each confining bed by several layers; and (2) the use of an anisotropic hydraulic conductivity at each finite-difference block. The model is compared with a previously developed quasi-three-dimensional model by simulating the steady-state flow in an aquifer system in the Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado. The aquifer system consists of two aquifers separated by a leaky confining bed. The upper aquifer receives recharge from precipitation and is hydraulically connected to streams. For this problem, in order to make a valid comparison of results, a single layer was used to represent each aquifer. Furthermore, the need for a layer to represent the confining bed was eliminated by incorporating the effects of vertical leakage into the vertical component of the anisotropic hydraulic conductivity of the adjacent aquifers. Thus, the problem was represented by only two layers in each model with a total of about 2,100 equations. This restricted the effects of flow in the confining layer to the vertical component, but simulations with a third layer in the three-dimensional model permitting horizontal flow in the confining bed show that the two-layer approach is reasonable. Convergence to a solution of this problem takes about one minute of computer time on the IBM/155. This is about 30 times faster than the time required using the quasi-three-dimensional model.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0022-1694(77)90076-2","issn":"00221694","usgsCitation":"Trescott, P., and Larson, S.P., 1977, Solution of three-dimensional groundwater flow equations using the strongly implicit procedure: Journal of Hydrology, v. 35, no. 1-2, p. 49-60, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(77)90076-2.","productDescription":"12 p.","startPage":"49","endPage":"60","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219270,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","otherGeospatial":"Piceance Creek Basin","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -109.01801547352804,\n 40.42979415974247\n ],\n [\n -109.01801547352804,\n 39.054617661058586\n ],\n [\n -106.97565719199748,\n 39.054617661058586\n ],\n [\n -106.97565719199748,\n 40.42979415974247\n ],\n [\n -109.01801547352804,\n 40.42979415974247\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"35","issue":"1-2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505b925be4b08c986b319e7e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Trescott, P.C.","contributorId":16399,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Trescott","given":"P.C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357339,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Larson, S. P.","contributorId":34903,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Larson","given":"S.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357340,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70156474,"text":"70156474 - 1977 - Hydrologic characteristics of the Madison Limestone, the Minnelusa Formation, and equivalent rocks as determined by well-logging formation evaluation, Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and North Dakota","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2015-08-21T15:52:17","indexId":"70156474","displayToPublicDate":"1977-08-31T18:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2446,"text":"Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Hydrologic characteristics of the Madison Limestone, the Minnelusa Formation, and equivalent rocks as determined by well-logging formation evaluation, Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and North Dakota","docAbstract":"Geophysical logs from wells distributed throughout the Powder River Basin were digitized, processed, and interpreted to get a regional understanding of the lithologic and ground-water characteristics of aquifers in the Madison Limestone and Minnelusa Formation. The percentage of sand, porosity, and apparent ground-water resistivity of the Minnelusa closely follow structural trends in the basin. Values increase from the structural axis of the basin toward the flanks. Close correlations between the water resistivities in the Madison and the Minnelusa indicate possible hydrologic connection between the two units. The low primary porosity from geophysical logs in the Madison indicates that secondary porosity is necessary to develop water supplies of economic importance from the Madison. Because of increased porosity and better water quality, the flanks of the basin appear to be the most favorable places for water production from either the Madison or the Minnelusa.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","usgsCitation":"Head, W.J., and Merkel, R.H., 1977, Hydrologic characteristics of the Madison Limestone, the Minnelusa Formation, and equivalent rocks as determined by well-logging formation evaluation, Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and North Dakota: Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey, v. 5, no. 4, p. 473-485.","productDescription":"13 p.","startPage":"473","endPage":"485","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":307179,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":307177,"rank":1,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/journal/1977/vol5issue4/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"15.42 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"}],"country":"United States","state":"Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, North Dakota","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -107.5,\n 42.32606244456202\n ],\n [\n -107.5,\n 46.5\n ],\n [\n -102.5,\n 46.5\n ],\n [\n -102.5,\n 42.32606244456202\n ],\n [\n -107.5,\n 42.32606244456202\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"5","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"55d84bb6e4b0518e3546f008","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Head, William J.","contributorId":96686,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Head","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":569272,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Merkel, Richard H.","contributorId":146876,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Merkel","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":569273,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70175436,"text":"70175436 - 1977 - Paleohydrologic phenomena recorded by lake sediments","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-04-02T12:09:51","indexId":"70175436","displayToPublicDate":"1977-07-20T11:15:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5026,"text":"Earth and Space Science","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Paleohydrologic phenomena recorded by lake sediments","docAbstract":"Hydrologic phenomena are dynamic, so their understanding and prediction are difficult and challenging. Many are cyclic, ranging from diurnal, seasonal, and annual cycles to climatic fluctuations of many hundreds or thousands of years. Predicting the magnitude and recurrence intervals of long-term fluctuations of these phenomena is a primary concern of hydrologists. The best data upon which to base predictions are those that directly measure a hydrologic phenomenon, such as stream discharge, lake level, and precipitation. Programs for collection of these data over a large area on a scientific basis, however, are less than 100 years old-not a very sound statistical base for predicting events that have recurrence intervals of at least that long.
\n","language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.1029/EO058i004p00188","usgsCitation":"Winter, T.C., and Wright, H., 1977, Paleohydrologic phenomena recorded by lake sediments: Earth and Space Science, v. 58, no. 4, p. 188-196, https://doi.org/10.1029/EO058i004p00188.","productDescription":"9 p.","startPage":"188","endPage":"196","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":392,"text":"Minnesota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":326391,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"58","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2011-06-03","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"57ada1e7e4b0f412a62dfab4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Winter, Thomas C.","contributorId":84736,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Winter","given":"Thomas","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":645228,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Wright, H.E. Jr.","contributorId":56369,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wright","given":"H.E.","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":645229,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70185636,"text":"70185636 - 1977 - Storage of treated sewage effluent and stormwater in a saline aquifer, Pinellas Peninsula, Florida","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-01-26T10:16:51","indexId":"70185636","displayToPublicDate":"1977-07-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3825,"text":"Groundwater","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Storage of treated sewage effluent and stormwater in a saline aquifer, Pinellas Peninsula, Florida","docAbstract":"
The Pinellas Peninsula, an area of 750 square kilometres (290 square miles) in coastal west-central Florida, is a small hydrogeologic replica of Florida. Most of the Peninsula's water supply is imported from well fields as much as 65 kilometres (40 miles) inland. Stresses on the hydrologic environment of the Peninsula and on adjacent water bodies, resulting from intensive water-resources development and waste discharge, have resulted in marked interest in subsurface storage of waste water (treated effluent and untreated storm water) and in future retrieval of the stored water for nonpotable use. If subsurface storage is approved by regulatory agencies, as much as 265 megalitres per day (70 million gallons a day) of waste water could be stored underground within a few years, and more than 565 megalitres per day (150 million gallons a day) could be stored in about 25 years. This storage would constitute a large resource of nearly fresh water in the saline aquifers underlying about 520 square kilometres (200 square miles) of the Peninsula.
The upper 1,060 metres (3,480 feet) of the rock column underlying four test sites on the Pinellas Peninsula have been explored. The rocks consist chiefly of limestone and dolomite. Three moderately to highly transmissive zones, separated by leaky confining beds, (low permeability limestone) from about 225 to 380 metres (740 to 1,250 feet) below mean sea level, have been identified in the lower part of the Floridan aquifer in the Avon Park Limestone. Results of withdrawal and injection tests in Pinellas County indicate that the middle transmissive zone has the highest estimated transmissivity-about 10 times other reported values. The chloride concentration of water in this zone, as well as in the two other transmissive zones in the Avon Park Limestone in Pinellas Peninsula, is about 19,000 milligrams per litre. If subsurface storage is approved and implemented, this middle zone probably would be used for storage of the waste water and the zone would become the most extensively used in Florida for this purpose.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1111/j.1745-6584.1977.tb03174.x","usgsCitation":"Rosenshein, J., and Hickey, J., 1977, Storage of treated sewage effluent and stormwater in a saline aquifer, Pinellas Peninsula, Florida: Groundwater, v. 15, no. 4, p. 284-293, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1977.tb03174.x.","productDescription":"10 p. ","startPage":"284","endPage":"293","costCenters":[{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":338337,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"15","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2006-07-06","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58d63043e4b05ec799131131","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rosenshein, J.S.","contributorId":95082,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rosenshein","given":"J.S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":686174,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hickey, J.J.","contributorId":57010,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hickey","given":"J.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":686175,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70185635,"text":"70185635 - 1977 - Disposal of saltwater during well construction--Problems and solutions","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-01-26T10:19:31","indexId":"70185635","displayToPublicDate":"1977-07-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3825,"text":"Groundwater","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Disposal of saltwater during well construction--Problems and solutions","docAbstract":"The recent interest in the disposal of treated sewage effluent by deep-well injection into salt-water-filled aquifers has increased the need for proper disposal of salt water as more wells are drilled and tested each year.
The effects on an unconfined aquifer of the improper disposal of salt water associated with the construction of three wells in southeastern Florida emphasize this need. In two of the wells provisions to prevent and detect salt-water contamination of the unconfined aquifer were practically nonexistent, and in one well extensive provisions were made. Of the three drilling sites the one with proper provision for detection presented no serious problem, as the ground water contaminated by the salt water was easily located and removed. The provisions consisted of drilling a brine-injection well to dispose of salt water discharged in drilling and testing operations, using a closed drilling circulation system to reduce spillage, installing shallow observation wells to map the extent and depth of any salt-water contamination of the shallow aquifer, and installing a dewatering system to remove contaminated ground water.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1111/j.1745-6584.1977.tb03173.x","usgsCitation":"Pitt, W.A., Meyer, F.W., and Hull, J.E., 1977, Disposal of saltwater during well construction--Problems and solutions: Groundwater, v. 15, no. 4, p. 276-283, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1977.tb03173.x.","productDescription":"8 p. ","startPage":"276","endPage":"283","costCenters":[{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":338336,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"15","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2006-07-06","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58d63043e4b05ec799131133","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Pitt, William A. Jr.","contributorId":77944,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pitt","given":"William","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":686171,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Meyer, Frederick W.","contributorId":39373,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Meyer","given":"Frederick","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":686172,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Hull, John E.","contributorId":15616,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hull","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":686173,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70009887,"text":"70009887 - 1977 - The age of groundwater in the Lincolnshire Limestone, England and its relevance to the flow mechanism","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-04-10T15:58:16.607618","indexId":"70009887","displayToPublicDate":"1977-05-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2342,"text":"Journal of Hydrology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The age of groundwater in the Lincolnshire Limestone, England and its relevance to the flow mechanism","docAbstract":"Groundwater samples from the Lincolnshire Limestone have been analysed for tritium, radiocarbon, and the stable-isotope ratios
The δ 18O and δ D ratios imply that recharge of the aquifer during the late Pleistocene took place in the spring and autumn rather than the winter as at present. The data are interpreted by assuming that movement of water through the saturated zone is a combination of flow in fissures and “piston flow” through the micro-fissures and pores of the rock. The mechanism of water movement in the saturated zone is dominated by relatively rapid flow in fissures, but the fissure flow includes a contribution of much older water from “intergranular” storage which enters the fissures from the rock matrix by pressure differentials in the fissure distribution system and by diffusion. The distribution of water of different ages in the aquifer is closely related to recent groundwater abstraction patterns.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0022-1694(77)90035-X","issn":"00221694","usgsCitation":"Downing, R., Smith, D.B., Pearson, F., Monkhouse, R., and Otlet, R., 1977, The age of groundwater in the Lincolnshire Limestone, England and its relevance to the flow mechanism: Journal of Hydrology, v. 33, no. 3-4, p. 201-216, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(77)90035-X.","productDescription":"16 p.","startPage":"201","endPage":"216","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219493,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"England","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -1.569367198611502,\n 55.83344865674502\n ],\n [\n -4.00421712081976,\n 54.53734668289741\n ],\n [\n -2.7970653838435595,\n 51.74310947717444\n ],\n [\n -3.0625949000342825,\n 51.38897089027556\n ],\n [\n -4.598480869790404,\n 51.135281217092206\n ],\n [\n -6.286147946606356,\n 49.94852677318424\n ],\n [\n -3.7972539932850147,\n 50.10098547629013\n ],\n [\n -1.569367198611502,\n 50.64508635165089\n ],\n [\n 1.2405774951434125,\n 50.83804783552037\n ],\n [\n 2.008712239038232,\n 52.58363962347701\n ],\n [\n 0.5593430736501261,\n 54.18134611667105\n ],\n [\n -1.569367198611502,\n 55.83344865674502\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"33","issue":"3-4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505ba9aee4b08c986b322427","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Downing, R.A.","contributorId":25293,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Downing","given":"R.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357382,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Smith, D. B. davidsmith@usgs.gov","contributorId":12840,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Smith","given":"D.","email":"davidsmith@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357380,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Pearson, F.J.","contributorId":58262,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pearson","given":"F.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357383,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Monkhouse, R.A.","contributorId":15071,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Monkhouse","given":"R.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357381,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Otlet, R.L.","contributorId":76998,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Otlet","given":"R.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357384,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":70168651,"text":"70168651 - 1977 - Geohydrology of Muscatine Island, Muscatine County, Iowa","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-07-30T13:42:57.763237","indexId":"70168651","displayToPublicDate":"1977-01-01T17:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":2,"text":"State or Local Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":148,"text":"Water Supply Bulletin","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":2}},"seriesNumber":"11","title":"Geohydrology of Muscatine Island, Muscatine County, Iowa","docAbstract":"Muscatine Island is a wide segment of the west bank of the Mississippi River flood plain that covers about 50 square miles in Muscatine and Louisa Counties; the project area encompasses the 30 square miles in Muscatine County. The flood plain is underlain by thick, permeable alluvial deposits that comprise a water-table aquifer that is developed extensively for water supplies in the area. The aquifer consists principally of sand and gravel, interbedded with lenses of silt and clay. Its saturated thickness ranges from about 40 to 140 feet. The transmissivity and storage coefficients of the aquifer range from about 20,000 ft.2/day and 0.15. respectively, in the western part of the Island to about 39,500 ft.2/day and 0.24 in the eastern part. The amount of water stored in the aquifer, under normal conditions, is about 100 billion gallons.
\nDischarge from the aquifer is principally by pumpage, which has increased from about 1 mgd (million gallons per day) in 1906 to about 37 mgd in 1970. About 2.5 mgd is normally lost to seepage and evapotranspiration along a 9-mile reach of Muscatine Slough in Muscatine County. About 0.9 mgd is discharged by evaporation from gravel pits.
\nRecharge to the aquifer is by induced infiltration from the Mississippi River, seepage from the river during major flood events, precipitation, and seepage from the underlying limestone bedrock. Induced infiltration provides about 80 to 85 percent of the water withdrawn from the principal pumping centers along the river and also replaces about 70 to 80 percent of the water that is evaporated from the gravel pits; this amounted to about 30 mgd in 1971. Additional significant recharge from the river occurs during major floods, when prolonged high stages provide the head for considerable underflow to the aquifer. Recharge from precipitation on the Island was calculated to average about 6inches per year or about 0.3 mgd per square mile. Seepage from bedrock is significant and is attributed to the increased head differential between the alluvial and bedrock aquifers in the areas of major pumping.
\nThe chemical constituents of water from the aquifer are generally within the recommended limits established by the U. S. Public Health Service for drinking water.
\nStresses on the hydrologic system have affected the position and configuration of the water table and the chemical quality of the ground water. The large-scale withdrawals, which began at the principal pumping centers in 1946, have caused the water table to decline from about 1 foot in the interior of the Island to about 5 feet near the edges of the main pumping centers; the decline was more than 8 feet under the pumping centers. A slight increase in hardness of water from riverward wells in the pumping centers is attributed to the induced infiltration of slightly harder river water; a noticeable increase in hardness and iron content in water from landward wells is attributed to seepage of water from the bedrock. In the central irrigated area, which is underlain by very permeable, highly drained soils that are mulched with organic fertilizers, the nitrate content of the ground water is as high as 46 mg/l (milligrams per liter). Land-use practices have had, and probably will continue to have, an impact on the quality and quantity of water available in the system.
\nThe hydrologic system in 1971 was in dynamic equilibrium or in near-equilibrium with the stresses imposed on it to that date. This equilibrium would be disturbed by any additional stresses on the system and water levels would change until a new equilibrium was established. The effects of future stresses can be reasonably predicted by developing a digital model of the system. The data to develop such a model are available in this report. Continued and expanded monitoring of water levels would provide data for better model verification. Periodic monitoring of nitrate and other chemical constituents would permit early detection of changes in concentration before the concentrations reached excessive levels.
","language":"English","publisher":"State of Iowa","publisherLocation":"Des Moines, IA","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Iowa Geological Survey, the United States Geological Survey, and the Board of Water and Light Trustees of the City of Muscatine, Iowa","usgsCitation":"Hansen, R., and Steinhilber, W.L., 1977, Geohydrology of Muscatine Island, Muscatine County, Iowa: Water Supply Bulletin 11, viii, 60 p.","productDescription":"viii, 60 p.","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":351,"text":"Iowa Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":318299,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/70168651.JPG"},{"id":493177,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/unnumbered/70168651/IGS_wsb_11.pdf","text":"Report","size":"2.95","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Iowa","county":"Muscatine","otherGeospatial":"Muscatine Island","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -91.23252868652344,\n 41.22773259388589\n ],\n [\n -91.23252868652344,\n 41.45199070565348\n ],\n [\n -90.98533630371094,\n 41.45199070565348\n ],\n [\n -90.98533630371094,\n 41.22773259388589\n ],\n [\n -91.23252868652344,\n 41.22773259388589\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"56cc3fdce4b059daa47e45a4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hansen, R.E.","contributorId":57109,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hansen","given":"R.E.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":621163,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Steinhilber, W. L.","contributorId":79456,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Steinhilber","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":621164,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70196006,"text":"70196006 - 1977 - Classification of the hydrologic settings of lakes in the north central United States","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-03-13T12:08:14","indexId":"70196006","displayToPublicDate":"1977-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3722,"text":"Water Resources Research","onlineIssn":"1944-7973","printIssn":"0043-1397","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Classification of the hydrologic settings of lakes in the north central United States","docAbstract":"The hydrologic settings of 150 lakes in the north central United States were investigated by principal component analysis as a first attempt to develop a general classification of the hydrologic settings of lakes. Precipitation-evaporation balance and the water quality variables have high loadings on the first principal component. Highest loadings on component 2 are for streamflow in and out of the lakes. Components 3 and 4 are characterized by geologic and groundwater flow variables. The drainage basin area/lake area ratio, the overland runoff variable, has the highest loading on component 5. The stability of the principal components was tested by randomly splitting the data and comparing a principal component analysis of each subsample. This showed the first two principal components to be the most stable. The components described by the groundwater variables are less stable, but there is justification for using them with caution. Of the variables examined in this study the distribution of dissolved solids of groundwater is most closely related to the distribution of lake types as determined by other limnological typologies in the north central United States. The study indicates that the following are the most important variables to be considered in classifying the hydrologic settings of lakes: dissolved solids concentration of groundwater, precipitation-evaporation balance, streamflow inlet and outlet, the ratio of drainage basin area to lake area, and lake depth. Of the groundwater variables, local relief and regional slope are more important than is regional position. Texture of the drift and bedrock, which is related to hydraulic conductivity of the rocks, is very important.
","language":"English","publisher":"AGU","doi":"10.1029/WR013i004p00753","usgsCitation":"Winter, T.C., 1977, Classification of the hydrologic settings of lakes in the north central United States: Water Resources Research, v. 13, no. 4, p. 753-767, https://doi.org/10.1029/WR013i004p00753.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"753","endPage":"767","costCenters":[{"id":478,"text":"North Dakota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":34685,"text":"Dakota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":352438,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"13","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2010-07-09","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5aff5002e4b0da30c1bfdc66","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Winter, Thomas C.","contributorId":84736,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Winter","given":"Thomas","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":730886,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010945,"text":"70010945 - 1977 - Hydrochemistry of the Lake Magadi basin, Kenya","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-03-11T11:09:46.651678","indexId":"70010945","displayToPublicDate":"1977-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1759,"text":"Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Hydrochemistry of the Lake Magadi basin, Kenya","docAbstract":"New and more complete compositional data are presented for a large number of water samples from the Lake Magadi area, Kenya. These water samples range from dilute inflow (<0.1 g/kg dissolved solids) to very concentrated brines (>300 g/kg dissolved solids). Five distinct hydrologic stages can be recognized in the evolution of the water compositions: dilute streamflow, dilute ground water, saline ground water (or hot spring reservoir), saturated brines, and residual brines. Based on the assumption that chloride is conserved in the waters during evaporative concentration, these stages are related to each other by the concentration factors of about 1:28:870:7600:16,800.
Dilute streamflow is represented by perennial streams entering the Rift Valley from the west. All but one (Ewaso Ngiro) of these streams disappear in the alluvium and do not reach the valley floor. Dilute ground water was collected from shallow pits and wells dug into lake sediments and alluvial channels. Saline ground water is roughly equivalent to the hot springs reservoir postulated by Eugster (1970) and is represented by the hottest of the major springs. Saturated brines represent surficial lake brines just at the point of saturation with respect to trona (Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O), while residual brines are essentially interstitial to the evaporite deposit and have been subjected to a complex history of precipitation and re-solution.
The new data confirm the basic hydrologic model presented by Eugster (1970) which has now been refined, particularly with respect to the early stages of evaporative concentration. Budget calculations show that only bromide is conserved as completely as chloride. Sodium follows chloride closely until trona precipitation, whereas silica and sulfate are largely lost during the very first concentration' step (dilute streamflow-dilute ground water). A large fraction of potassium and all calcium plus magnesium are removed during the first two concentration steps (dilute streamflow-dilute ground water-saline ground water). Carbonate and bicarbonate are the dominant anions, and mechanisms by which they are extracted from the solution include precipitation of alkali and alkaline-earth carbonates, and degassing, as well as precipitation and re-solution of efflorescent crusts. Much sulfate is apparently lost from solution by sorption as well as subsurface reduction.
Seasonal runoff, principally from the valley floor north of Lake Magadi, is considered to be the principal recharge to the Magadi ground water system. Evaporative concentration is the overall process responsible for the chemical evolution of the brines. This includes not only simple evaporation, but also mineral precipitation as films and cements in the unsaturated zone, re-solution, and reprecipitation of efflorescent crusts, with consequent recycling of salts. In fact, a large fraction of the solutes are acquired through dissolution of efflorescent crusts.
Data were obtained for borehole brines from as deep as 297 m. They show the existence of two distinct brine bodies below the present lake, one shallow, coexistent with bedded salts, and highly concentrated (260 g/kg average dissolved solids), and the other deeper in lacustrine sediments or fractured lavas, and only half as concentrated.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0016-7037(77)90186-7","issn":"00167037","usgsCitation":"Jones, B., Eugster, H., and Rettig, S., 1977, Hydrochemistry of the Lake Magadi basin, Kenya: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 41, no. 1, p. 53-72, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(77)90186-7.","productDescription":"20 p.","startPage":"53","endPage":"72","numberOfPages":"20","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":220872,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"41","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a3333e4b0c8380cd5edfa","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Jones, B.F.","contributorId":52156,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jones","given":"B.F.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359949,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Eugster, H.P.","contributorId":99992,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Eugster","given":"H.P.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359950,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Rettig, S.L.","contributorId":42592,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rettig","given":"S.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359948,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":25514,"text":"wri7725 - 1977 - Geochemical and hydrologic data for wells and springs in thermal-spring areas of the Appalachians","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-09-02T15:01:34.255771","indexId":"wri7725","displayToPublicDate":"1977-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":342,"text":"Water-Resources Investigations Report","code":"WRI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"77-25","title":"Geochemical and hydrologic data for wells and springs in thermal-spring areas of the Appalachians","docAbstract":"Current interest in geothermal potential of thermal-spring areas in the Appalachians enhances the value of data on thermal springs and wells in these areas. This report presents maps showing locations of selected springs and wells and tables of physical and chemical data pertaining to these wells and springs. The chemical tables show compositions of gases (oxygen, nitrogen, argon, methane, carbon dioxide, and helium), isotope contents (tritium, carbon-13, and oxygen-18), trace and minor element chemical data, and concentrations of the major chemical constituents.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wri7725","usgsCitation":"Hobba, W., Chemerys, J., Fisher, D., and Pearson, F.J., 1977, Geochemical and hydrologic data for wells and springs in thermal-spring areas of the Appalachians: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 77-25, v, 36 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/wri7725.","productDescription":"v, 36 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":157265,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1977/0025/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":406141,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1977/0025/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b24e4b07f02db6ae6f5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hobba, W.A. Jr.","contributorId":77518,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hobba","given":"W.A.","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":194005,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Chemerys, J.C.","contributorId":94293,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Chemerys","given":"J.C.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":850709,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Fisher, D.W.","contributorId":77519,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fisher","given":"D.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":850710,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Pearson, F. J. Jr.","contributorId":7696,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pearson","given":"F.","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":850711,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":68083,"text":"ha564 - 1977 - Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":20540,"text":"ofr76375 - 1976 - Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine","indexId":"ofr76375","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":68083,"text":"ha564 - 1977 - Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine","indexId":"ha564","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"title":"Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-13T19:04:52.439171","indexId":"ha564","displayToPublicDate":"1977-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":318,"text":"Hydrologic Atlas","code":"HA","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"564","title":"Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ha564","usgsCitation":"Prescott, G., 1977, Ground-water favorability and surficial geology of the Windham-Freeport area, Maine: U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Atlas 564, 1 Plate: 28.00 × 40.25 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ha564.","productDescription":"1 Plate: 28.00 × 40.25 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":398650,"rank":2,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_15955.htm"},{"id":190294,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":91823,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/564/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"62500","country":"United States","state":"Maine","otherGeospatial":"Windham-Freeport area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -70.5,\n 43.6420\n ],\n [\n -70,\n 43.6420\n ],\n [\n -70,\n 43.8680\n ],\n [\n -70.5,\n 43.8680\n ],\n [\n -70.5,\n 43.6420\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66ce37","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Prescott, Glenn C.","contributorId":38126,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Prescott","given":"Glenn C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":277615,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70190918,"text":"70190918 - 1977 - Selected hydrologic data, Parowan Valley and Cedar City Valley drainage basins, Iron County, Utah","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-09-17T16:51:12","indexId":"70190918","displayToPublicDate":"1977-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1977","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":2,"text":"State or Local Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5498,"text":"Utah Basic-Data Release","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":2}},"seriesNumber":"28","title":"Selected hydrologic data, Parowan Valley and Cedar City Valley drainage basins, Iron County, Utah","docAbstract":"This report presents selected basic data from a study of the ground- water resources of the Parowan Valley and Cedar City Valley drainage basins, Iron County, Utah. The study was made during 1973-75 by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Utah Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water Rights. This report is intended to make the data conveniently available and to supplement an interpretive report, which will be published separately.
This report contains climatologic and hydrologic data that were collected as a part of an investigation of the southeastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado, by the U.S. Geological Survey. The data apply mainly to water years 1975 and 1976, which includes the period from October 1974 through September 1976. Included also are some earlier ground-water data not previously published. Similar reports will be published periodically during the data-collection phase of the project, which ends September 1979.
The investigation encompasses the collection and interpretation of a variety of climatologic, hydrologic, and geologic information in and near the southeastern Uinta Basin in order to (1) define the natural hydrologic system according to the occurrence, use, quantity, and quality of water; (2) define various hydrologic characteristics such as the seasonal and areal distribution of temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and streamflow; (3) determine the water demands that might be imposed on the hydrologic system as a result of oil-shale development; and (3) develop simulation models that could be used to predict the effects of various water-use plans that would satisfy these demands .
The data collection during water years 1975 and 1976 was carried out in cooperation with the Utah Department of Natural Resources, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, and the U. S. Environmental Protect:ion Agency.
This report presents a part of the results of an investigation of the hydrology of the northern Uinta Basin area by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Division of Water Rights, Utah Department of Natural Resources. The purpose of the report is to summarize the hydraulic and geohydrologic characteristics of the aquifers in the area.
","language":"English","publisher":"Utah Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water Rights ","publisherLocation":"Salt Lake City, UT","collaboration":"Prepared by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the Utah Department of Natural Resources Division of Water Rights ","usgsCitation":"Hood, J.W., 1976, Characteristics of aquifers in the northern Uinta Basin area, Utah and Colorado: Technical Publication 53, vi, 71 p.","productDescription":"vi, 71 p.","numberOfPages":"80","costCenters":[{"id":610,"text":"Utah Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":266666,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":331878,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.waterrights.utah.gov/cgi-bin/libview.exe?Modinfo=Viewpub&LIBNUM=20-5-330"},{"id":331879,"rank":3,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://waterrights.utah.gov/docSys/v920/w920/w920009f.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado, Utah","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -114.0,37.0 ], [ -114.0,42.0 ], [ -102.0,42.0 ], [ -102.0,37.0 ], [ -114.0,37.0 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5108fd7fe4b0d965cd9f2319","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hood, J. W.","contributorId":87908,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hood","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":472616,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70042823,"text":"70042823 - 1976 - Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":13216,"text":"ofr74214 - 1974 - Estimating mean streamflow in the Duchesne River basin, Utah","indexId":"ofr74214","publicationYear":"1974","noYear":false,"title":"Estimating mean streamflow in the Duchesne River basin, Utah"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":70042823,"text":"70042823 - 1976 - Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah","indexId":"70042823","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"title":"Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":16124,"text":"ofr75392 - 1975 - Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin; Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah","indexId":"ofr75392","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"title":"Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin; Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":70042823,"text":"70042823 - 1976 - Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah","indexId":"70042823","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"title":"Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah"},"id":2}],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-12-12T13:38:13","indexId":"70042823","displayToPublicDate":"2013-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":294,"text":"Technical Publication","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":4}},"seriesNumber":"51","title":"Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah","docAbstract":"The Pine Valley drainage basin is an area of about 730 square miles (1,890 square kilometres) in Millard, Beaver, and Iron Counties in southwestern Utah. Total annual precipitation in the basin averages about 410,000 acre-ft (acre-feet) or 506 hm3 (cubic hectometres). Less than 500 acre-ft (0.6 hm3) of runoff reaches the playa on the lowest part of the valley floor. There is no surface outflow from the basin. All streams are ephemeral except in short headwater reaches of a few streams where perennial or intermittent ground-water discharge sustains flow. Surface-water development and use in the basin are insignificant.","language":"English","publisher":"Utah Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water Rights","publisherLocation":"Salt Lake City, UT","collaboration":"Prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Utah Department of Natural Resources Division of Water Rights.","usgsCitation":"Stephens, J.C., 1976, Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Pine Valley drainage basin, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah: Technical Publication 51, iv, 38 p.","productDescription":"iv, 38 p.","numberOfPages":"45","costCenters":[{"id":610,"text":"Utah Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":266429,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":267163,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://waterrights.utah.gov/docSys/v920/w920/w920009d.pdf"},{"id":331876,"rank":3,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.waterrights.utah.gov/cgi-bin/libview.exe?Modinfo=Viewpub&LIBNUM=20-5-300"}],"country":"United States","state":"Utah","county":"Beaver County, Iron County, Millard County","otherGeospatial":"Pine Valley Basin","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -114.0106201171875,\n 37.96801944035648\n ],\n [\n -114.0106201171875,\n 38.884619201291905\n ],\n [\n -113.27728271484374,\n 38.884619201291905\n ],\n [\n -113.27728271484374,\n 37.96801944035648\n ],\n [\n -114.0106201171875,\n 37.96801944035648\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"51026618e4b0d4f5ea817c00","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Stephens, Jerry C.","contributorId":81493,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Stephens","given":"Jerry","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":472331,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70039211,"text":"70039211 - 1976 - Man against volcano: The eruption on Heimaey, Vestmann Islands, Iceland","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-07-27T01:01:50","indexId":"70039211","displayToPublicDate":"2012-01-01T09:12:46","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":6,"text":"USGS Unnumbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":362,"text":"General Information Product","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":6}},"title":"Man against volcano: The eruption on Heimaey, Vestmann Islands, Iceland","docAbstract":"The U.S. Geological Survey carries out scientific studies in the geological, hydrological, and cartographic sciences generally within the 50 states, but also in cooperation with scientific organizations in many foreign countries for the investigation of unusual earth science phenomena throughout the world. The following material discusses the impact of the 1973 volcanic eruption of Eldfell on the fishing port of Vestmannaeyjar on the island of Heimaey, Iceland. Before the eruption was over, approximately one-third of the town of Vestmannaeyjar had been obliterated but, more importantly, the potential damage had been reduced markedly by the spraying of seawater onto the advancing lava flows, causing them to be slowed, stopped, or diverted from the undamaged portion of the town. The Survey's interest and involvement in the Heimaey eruption in Iceland was occasioned by the possibility that the procedures used to control the course of the flowing lava and to reduce the damage in a modern town may some day be needed in Hawaii and possibly even in the continental United States. This publication is based on the observations of two USGS geologists, Richard S. Williams, Jr. and James G. Moore, as well as on information from the Icelandic Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Icelandic scientists' reports through the Center for Short-Lived Phenomena, and other published scientific reports. A number of Icelandic scientists studied the scientific aspects of the eruption and the engineering aspects of the control of lava flows, in particular, Professors Thorbjb'rn Sigurgeirsson and Sigurdur Thorarinsson of the University of Iceland Science Institute. Also, Icelandic governmental officials provided logistical and other support, in particular, Mr. Steingnmur Hermannsson, Director, Icelandic National Research Council and Professor Magnus Magnusson, Director, University of Iceland Science Institute.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/70039211","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Icelandic Ministry for Foreign Affairs, The Center for Short-Lived Phenomena, the University of Iceland Science Institute, and the Icelandic National Research Council","usgsCitation":"Williams, R., and Moore, J., 1976, Man against volcano: The eruption on Heimaey, Vestmann Islands, Iceland: General Information Product, 19 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/70039211.","productDescription":"19 p.","numberOfPages":"20","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":261386,"rank":800,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70039211/report.pdf"},{"id":261387,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70039211/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Iceland","city":"Vestmannaeyjar","otherGeospatial":"Heimaey Island;Vestmann Islands;Eldfell","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -20.333333333333332,63.38333333333333 ], [ -20.333333333333332,63.5 ], [ -20.166666666666668,63.5 ], [ -20.166666666666668,63.38333333333333 ], [ -20.333333333333332,63.38333333333333 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a4c5ae4b0c8380cd69bc6","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Williams, R.S. Jr.","contributorId":46102,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Williams","given":"R.S.","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":465789,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Moore, J.G.","contributorId":67496,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"J.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":465790,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70162521,"text":"70162521 - 1976 - Stratigraphic and hydrologic relationship of the Piney Point aquifer and the Alloway Clay Member of the Kirkwood Formation in New Jersey","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-01-25T19:49:55","indexId":"70162521","displayToPublicDate":"2008-12-28T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1976","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2446,"text":"Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Stratigraphic and hydrologic relationship of the Piney Point aquifer and the Alloway Clay Member of the Kirkwood Formation in New Jersey","docAbstract":"Coarse quartzose (clastic) sediments of middle and late Eocene age in the subsurface of southern New Jersey are identified in this report as the Piney Point aquifer. The sediments are as thick as 220 feet (67 metres) and form a freshwater aquifer which is laterally continuous with the Piney Point aquifer of the Delmarva Peninsula. The Piney Point aquifer, in the area of Newport in Cumberland County, consists of fine to coarse glauconitic sand that is suggestive of deposition in a marginal marine beach environment. The aquifer tends to become finer grained with depth; coarse sand is dominant near the top of the aquifer, whereas, silt and clay are dominant near the base. The top of the aquifer- is marked by an angular unconformity. The hiatus between the upper Eocene sediments and the overlying Kirkwood Formation of middle Miocene age represents erosion during Oligocene and early Miocene time. The Alloway Clay Member, the basal unit of the Kirkwood Formation, rests unconformably on the Piney Point aquifer. It is a silty clay, dark brown to light tan, and contains abundant shell fragments and reworked greensand from the underlying Piney Point aquifer. The Alloway Clay Member, where present, acts as a confining unit for the Piney Point aquifer in southern New Jersey. Chemical analyses of water samples from the Piney Point aquifer in Cumberland County indicate a potential chloride problem in the aquifer near Delaware Bay. A water sample taken in 1973 at the Gandys Beach well contained 516 milligrams per litre of chloride, and a water sample taken in 1973 at the Money Island Marina well contained 73 milligrams per litre of chloride. Scant water-level data indicate the possibility of declining water levels in Cumberland County near Delaware Bay due to pumping from the Piney Point aquifer in Delaware. The altitude of the water level at well 16 is -3 feet (-1 metre), and the water-level altitude at well 11 is +23 feet (+7 metres).
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