A review of the literature regarding gas-bubble disease can be found in a recent publication by Rucker (1972); one by the National Academy of Science (Anonymous in press); and an unpublished report by Weitkamp and Katz (1973).\" Most discussions on gas-bubble disease have dealt with the inert gas, nitrogen-oxygen was given a secondary role. It is important to know the relationship of nitrogen and oxygen when we are concerned with the total gas pressure in water. Where water becomes aerated at dams or falls, oxygen and nitrogen are usually about equally saturated, however, many of the samples analyzed from the Columbia River indicate that nitrogen is often about 7% higher than oxygen when expressed as a percentage. When oxygen is removed from water by metabolic and chemical action, or when oxygen is added to the water by photosynthesis, there is a definite change in the ratio of oxygen and the inert gases (mainly nitrogen with some argon, etc.). This present study shows the effect of varying the oxygen and nitrogen ratio in water on fingerling coho salmon, Oncorh.llnchllS kislltch, while maintaining a constant total gas pressure. The primary purpose of these experiments was to determine differences in lethality of various gas ratios of oxygen and nitrogen at a constant total gas pressure of 119%. I also wished to determine whether there was a difference in susceptibility between sizes and stocks of juvenile coho. Also to be examined was the effect of reducing the oJl:ygen while holding the nitrogen constant.
","language":"English","usgsCitation":"Rucker, R., 1975, Gas bubble disease: mortalities of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, in water with constant total gas pressure and different oxygen-nitrogen ratios: Fishery Bulletin, v. 73, no. 4, p. 915-918.","productDescription":"4 p. ","startPage":"915","endPage":"918","costCenters":[{"id":654,"text":"Western Fisheries Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":335438,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"73","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58a4254be4b0c825128ad4ef","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rucker, R.R.","contributorId":104000,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rucker","given":"R.R.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":668953,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1001587,"text":"1001587 - 1975 - Use of elevated nest baskets by ducks","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-10-11T11:14:46","indexId":"1001587","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3779,"text":"Wildlife Society Bulletin","onlineIssn":"1938-5463","printIssn":"0091-7648","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Use of elevated nest baskets by ducks","docAbstract":"Open-top nest baskets were mounted on upright metal poles in various wetlands to assess the value of baskets as a potential technique for increasing duck nest success. Observations were made from 1966-1968 in North and South Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin and were continued through 1973 in North Dakota. Baskets were used most readily in the prairie pothole region; of the 1,038 basket nest sites provided during 1966-68, 392 contained clutches of eggs (38 percent), and 324 (83 percent) hatched. Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) initiated 98 percent of these nests. Factors affecting nest success included human disturbance, nesting material, egg freezing, and avian predation.","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Wildlife Society Bulletin","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service","usgsCitation":"Doty, H.A., Lee, F., and Kruse, A., 1975, Use of elevated nest baskets by ducks: Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 3, no. 2, p. 68-73.","productDescription":"6 p.","startPage":"68","endPage":"73","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":133778,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"3","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a17e4b07f02db604620","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Doty, Harold A.","contributorId":17565,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Doty","given":"Harold","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":311312,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Lee, F.B.","contributorId":30174,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lee","given":"F.B.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":311314,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Kruse, A.D.","contributorId":19900,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kruse","given":"A.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":311313,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":1001316,"text":"1001316 - 1975 - Boreal owl taken near Watertown","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-01-05T10:26:45","indexId":"1001316","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3441,"text":"South Dakota Bird Notes","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Boreal owl taken near Watertown","docAbstract":"Abstract has not been submitted","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"South Dakota Bird Notes","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","usgsCitation":"Rose, W., and Springer, P.F., 1975, Boreal owl taken near Watertown: South Dakota Bird Notes, v. 27, no. 4, p. 64-65.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"64","endPage":"65","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":128939,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"27","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a14e4b07f02db602ac1","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rose, W.A.","contributorId":93425,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rose","given":"W.A.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":310870,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Springer, P. F.","contributorId":56590,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Springer","given":"P.","email":"","middleInitial":"F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":310869,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1001336,"text":"1001336 - 1975 - The role of indigenous wild, semidomestic, and exotic birds in the epizootiology of velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease in southern California, 1972-1973","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-03-19T14:17:30.548154","indexId":"1001336","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2528,"text":"Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The role of indigenous wild, semidomestic, and exotic birds in the epizootiology of velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease in southern California, 1972-1973","docAbstract":"During an epornitic of velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease (VVND) in southern California, free-flying wild birds, captive and free-ranging semidomestic birds, and exotic birds were collected from the quarantine area to determine their role in the epizootiology of the disease. The VVND virus was isolated from 0.04% of 9,446 free-flying wild birds, 0.76% of 4,367 semidomestic birds, and 1.01% of 3,780 exotic birds examined. Three house sparrows and 1 crow directly associated with infected poultry flocks were the only free-flying wild birds from which VVND virus was isolated. Among semidomestic species, ducks, quail, chukars, pheasants, peafowl, pigeons, and doves were found to be infected. Psittacines, pittas, and toucans accounted for 92% of the VVND virus isolations from exotic birds. In addition, domestic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) was isolated from 0.29% of the free-flying wild birds, from 1.65% of the semidomestic birds, and from 0.19% of the exotic birds collected. Hemagglutination-inhibition against domestic NDV was demonstrated in 0.24% of 3,796 wild bird serums, 8.28% of 2,004 semidomestic bird serums, and 3.90% of 231 exotic bird serums tested.Although few free-flying wild birds were infected with VVND virus in this epornitic, the isolation of domestic NDV strains from free-flying wild ducks and mourning doves suggests the potential for transportation of NDV over long distances by migratory birds.","language":"English","publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association","issn":"00031488","usgsCitation":"Pearson, G., and McCann, M., 1975, The role of indigenous wild, semidomestic, and exotic birds in the epizootiology of velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease in southern California, 1972-1973: Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, v. 167, no. 7, p. 610-614.","productDescription":"5 p.","startPage":"610","endPage":"614","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":133720,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"167","issue":"7","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a0de4b07f02db5fd01a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Pearson, G.L.","contributorId":83868,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Pearson","given":"G.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":310894,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"McCann, M.K.","contributorId":73556,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McCann","given":"M.K.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":310893,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1007716,"text":"1007716 - 1975 - Longevity of nonsprouting Ceanothus","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-02-15T17:21:56.170792","indexId":"1007716","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":737,"text":"American Midland Naturalist","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Longevity of nonsprouting Ceanothus","docAbstract":"Evidence is presented indicating species of Ceanothus in the subgenus Cerastes are generally longer-lived than species in the subgenus Euceanothus. It is proposed that this is due, at least in part, to the unique stem morphology of the former. The stems of these plants have a ribbed appearance which arises when branches die. This longitudinal channeling results in less nonphotosynthetic tissue to support and an overall greater efficiency in competing for light and moisture in the chaparral.
","language":"English","publisher":"University of Notre Dame","doi":"10.2307/2424191","usgsCitation":"Keeley, J.E., 1975, Longevity of nonsprouting Ceanothus: American Midland Naturalist, v. 93, no. 2, p. 504-507, https://doi.org/10.2307/2424191.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"504","endPage":"507","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129906,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"93","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a6de4b07f02db63f03d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Keeley, Jon E. 0000-0002-4564-6521 jon_keeley@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4564-6521","contributorId":1268,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Keeley","given":"Jon","email":"jon_keeley@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":315905,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1003386,"text":"1003386 - 1975 - Renal excretion in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) after acute exposure to 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-03-04T16:11:07.486868","indexId":"1003386","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2543,"text":"Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Renal excretion in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) after acute exposure to 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol","docAbstract":"Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) exposed to an acute, sublethal concentration of 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM) exhibited an increased output of urine when compared with controls, but the urinary excretion of Na, K, Ca, Mg, and Cl was not affected. About 35 times more conjugated TFM than free TFM was excreted during the 24-h study period.
","language":"English","publisher":"Canadian Science Publishing","doi":"10.1139/f75-226","usgsCitation":"Hunn, J.B., and Allen, J.L., 1975, Renal excretion in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) after acute exposure to 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol: Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, v. 32, no. 10, p. 1873-1876, https://doi.org/10.1139/f75-226.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"1873","endPage":"1876","numberOfPages":"4","costCenters":[{"id":606,"text":"Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":130560,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"32","issue":"10","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a6de4b07f02db63eddc","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hunn, J. B.","contributorId":15133,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hunn","given":"J.","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":313214,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Allen, J. L.","contributorId":49295,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Allen","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":313215,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":1001684,"text":"1001684 - 1975 - Effects of agricultural burning on nesting waterfowl","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-11-15T01:40:05.912255","indexId":"1001684","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1163,"text":"Canadian Field-Naturalist","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Effects of agricultural burning on nesting waterfowl","docAbstract":"Agricultural burning in an intensively farmed region within Manitoba's pothole district is shown to affect the nesting activities of ground-nesting ducks. All species, except Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors), preferred unburned nest cover, although success was higher in burned areas, where predators may have exerted less influence. Attitudes of farmers, burning chronology, and nest destruction by fires are also reported.","language":"English","publisher":"Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club","usgsCitation":"Fritzell, E., 1975, Effects of agricultural burning on nesting waterfowl: Canadian Field-Naturalist, v. 89, no. 1, p. 21-27.","productDescription":"7 p.","startPage":"21","endPage":"27","costCenters":[{"id":480,"text":"Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":422591,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/344797"},{"id":130304,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"89","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a49e4b07f02db6245c5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Fritzell, E.K.","contributorId":35685,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fritzell","given":"E.K.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":311511,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1014111,"text":"1014111 - 1975 - Myxosoma cerebralis : comparative sensitivity of plankton centrifuge and sequential enzymatic digestion methods for recovery of spores","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-02T17:16:03","indexId":"1014111","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1647,"text":"Fish Health News","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Myxosoma cerebralis : comparative sensitivity of plankton centrifuge and sequential enzymatic digestion methods for recovery of spores","largerWorkType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"largerWorkTitle":"Fish Health News","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service","collaboration":"420/FH","usgsCitation":"Wolf, K., Markiw, M., Gustafson, C., O’Grodnick, J.J., and Bender, T., 1975, Myxosoma cerebralis : comparative sensitivity of plankton centrifuge and sequential enzymatic digestion methods for recovery of spores: Fish Health News, v. 4, no. 3, p. 9-10.","productDescription":"p. 9-10","startPage":"9","endPage":"10","numberOfPages":"2","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":129658,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"4","issue":"3","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b32e4b07f02db6b4919","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wolf, K.","contributorId":16344,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wolf","given":"K.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":319806,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Markiw, M.E.","contributorId":44865,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Markiw","given":"M.E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":319808,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Gustafson, C.","contributorId":44113,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gustafson","given":"C.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":319807,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"O’Grodnick, J. J.","contributorId":67454,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"O’Grodnick","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":319810,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Bender, T.","contributorId":54549,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bender","given":"T.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":319809,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":95210,"text":"95210 - 1975 - Fish diseases and parasites","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:03:52","indexId":"95210","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"title":"Fish diseases and parasites","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Freshwater Foodfish (and Crawfish): Research Needs in the Southern Region","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"language":"English","publisher":"State Agricultural Experiment Stations and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Research Information, Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University","publisherLocation":"Auburn, AL","collaboration":"None/FF","usgsCitation":"Plumb, J., and Hoffman, G.L., 1975, Fish diseases and parasites, chap. of Freshwater Foodfish (and Crawfish): Research Needs in the Southern Region, p. 5-7.","productDescription":"p. 5-7","startPage":"5","endPage":"7","numberOfPages":"3","costCenters":[{"id":365,"text":"Leetown Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":127110,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f4e4b07f02db5f0988","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Plumb, J.","contributorId":71114,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Plumb","given":"J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":298678,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hoffman, G. L.","contributorId":70713,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hoffman","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":298677,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":96469,"text":"96469 - 1975 - A collection of reptiles and amphibians from the Chaco of Paraguay","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:03:52","indexId":"96469","displayToPublicDate":"1975-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1975","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":9,"text":"Other Report"},"title":"A collection of reptiles and amphibians from the Chaco of Paraguay","docAbstract":"No abstract available at this time","language":"English","collaboration":"Occasional Papers of the University of Connecticut","usgsCitation":"Scott, N., and Lovett, J., 1975, A collection of reptiles and amphibians from the Chaco of Paraguay, v. 2, p. 257-266.","productDescription":"p. 257-266","startPage":"257","endPage":"266","numberOfPages":"10","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":127200,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b28e4b07f02db6b108a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Scott, N.J. 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Some fossil differences are due to basic differences in organization of animals and plants, but the interpretation of fossils has also tended to be influenced by modes of preservation. Four modes of preservation generally can be distinguished: (1) Cellular permineralization (“petrifaction”) preserves anatomical detail, and, occasionally, even cytologic structures. (2) Coalified compression, best illustrated by structures from coal but characteristic of many plant fossils in shale, preserves anatomical details in distorted form and produces surface replicas (impressions) on enclosing matrix. (3) Authigenic preservation replicates surface form or outline (molds and casts) prior to distortion by compression and, depending on cementation and timing, may intergrade with fossils that have been subject to compression. (4) Duripartic (hard part) preservation is characteristic of fossil skeletal remains, predominantly animal. Molds, pseudomorphs, or casts may form as bulk replacements following dissolution of the original fossil material, usually by leaching. Classification of the kinds of preservation in fossils will aid in identifying the processes responsible for modifying the fossil remains of both animals and plants.