Urbanization and changes in regional development in Racine and Kenosha Counties are increasing the need for water-resources information useful for planning and management. The area is fortunate in having abundant supplies of generally good quality water available for present and projected future needs. Lake Michigan and ground-water reservoirs have great potential for increased development. Lake Michigan assures the urbanized area in the eastern part of the two counties of a nearly inexhaustible water supply. In 1967 the cities of Racine and Kenosha pumped an average of 32.6 mgd (million gallons per day) from the lake. Water from Lake Michigan is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type, but it is less hard than water from other sources. Discharge from Racine and Kenosha Counties into Lake Michigan is low and has little effect on the lake. The Root and Pike Rivers and a number of smaller streams contribute a mean flow of about 125 cfs (cubic feet per second) to the lake. Ground water, approximately 5 cfs, enters the lake as discharge from springs or as seeps. The Des Plaines, Root, and Pike Rivers drain areas of relatively impermeable silty clay that promotes rapid surface runoff and provides little sustained base flow. Sewage sometimes accounts for most of the base flow of the Root River. In contrast, the Fox River, which drains the western half of the area, has steady and dependable flow derived from the sand and gravel and the Niagara aquifers. Sewage-plant effluent released to the Fox River in 1964 was about 5 percent of the total flow. A 5-mile reach of the Root River loses about 30,000 gpd (gallons per day) per mile to the local ground-water reservoir and is a possible source of ground-water contamination. Thirty-five of the 43 lakes in the area are the visible parts of the groundwater table, and their stages fluctuate with changes in ground-water levels. The rest of the lakes are perched above the ground-water table. Flooding is a recurring but generally minor problem along occupied reaches of flood plains of all the streams. However, in 1960 a flood on the Fox River, which had a recurrence interval of 60 years, caused considerable damage near the village of Silver Lake. At the same time, a flood on the Root River, which had a recurrence interval of 100 years, caused damage in Racine. The sandstone aquifer, a major artesian reservoir underlying all of Racine and Kenosha Counties, is used as a water supply for industries, institutions, and three communities. Pumpage for these uses was about 3.3 mgd in 1967. The greatest decline of water levels, attributed to both local and regional pumping, was 7 feet per year at Burlington. The specific capacities of wells developed in the Mount Simon Sandstone are about 5 gpm (gallons per minute) per foot of drawdown; in the Galesville and Franconia Sandstones, about 4 gpm per foot of drawdown; and in the St. Peter Sandstone, about 1 gpm per foot of drawdown. Yields of more than 1,000 gpm are obtained from wells tapping the Galesville and Franconia Sandstones and penetrating large crevices in the Trempealeau Formation near Burlington and Union Grove. About 2.5 mgd of ground water in the sandstone aquifer was diverted from the two-county area toward the Milwaukee and Chicago pumping centers in 1963--about 1.7 mgd moving from Racine County toward Milwaukee and 0.8 mgd moving from Kenosha County toward Chicago. Recent regional waterlevel declines in the sandstone aquifer have ranged from about 3 to 5 feet per year. This decline in water levels represents a ground-water depletion of about 0.5 mgd; however, the aquifer is not being dewatered, nor are water levels declining in the recharge area. The sandstone aquifer receives about 80 percent of its recharge from its outcrop area west of the two counties. In 1963 about 3.5 mgd moved eastward laterally from the recharge zone in western Walworth County, and about 1 mgd leaked downward through the overly
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/wsp1878","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with University Extension-the University of Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey","usgsCitation":"Hutchinson, R.D., 1970, Water resources of Racine and Kenosha Counties, southeastern Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1878, Report: v, 63 p.; 4 Plates:35.50 x 17.94 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1878.","productDescription":"Report: v, 63 p.; 4 Plates:35.50 x 17.94 inches or smaller","numberOfPages":"70","onlineOnly":"Y","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":677,"text":"Wisconsin Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":27302,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1878/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27303,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1878/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27304,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1878/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27305,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1878/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27306,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1878/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":138546,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1878/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Wisconsin","county":"Kenosha County, Racine County","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[-87.801,42.671],[-87.8037,42.6642],[-87.8057,42.6574],[-87.8097,42.6466],[-87.8138,42.6344],[-87.8164,42.6267],[-87.8178,42.6217],[-87.818,42.6153],[-87.8187,42.6108],[-87.8176,42.6049],[-87.8171,42.5999],[-87.8166,42.5953],[-87.8154,42.5917],[-87.8124,42.5866],[-87.8126,42.5812],[-87.8128,42.573],[-87.8123,42.5662],[-87.8125,42.558],[-87.8134,42.5448],[-87.8131,42.5348],[-87.8115,42.523],[-87.8086,42.512],[-87.8063,42.5047],[-87.8046,42.4992],[-87.8029,42.4962],[-87.8854,42.4967],[-87.995,42.4972],[-88.0647,42.4975],[-88.1163,42.4975],[-88.1766,42.4981],[-88.1945,42.4981],[-88.1971,42.4981],[-88.3016,42.4979],[-88.3027,42.6134],[-88.3044,42.8444],[-88.1868,42.8451],[-88.0699,42.8447],[-87.9524,42.8448],[-87.8355,42.8447],[-87.8268,42.8446],[-87.8262,42.8423],[-87.822,42.8336],[-87.8135,42.8244],[-87.8043,42.8156],[-87.7946,42.8064],[-87.7884,42.8018],[-87.7798,42.7967],[-87.7687,42.792],[-87.762,42.7864],[-87.7589,42.7823],[-87.759,42.78],[-87.7647,42.7769],[-87.7737,42.768],[-87.7795,42.758],[-87.7797,42.7517],[-87.7817,42.7471],[-87.7789,42.7321],[-87.779,42.7285],[-87.7773,42.7239],[-87.7773,42.7212],[-87.7825,42.7126],[-87.7845,42.7072],[-87.7853,42.7017],[-87.7911,42.6941],[-87.7925,42.6895],[-87.7951,42.6828],[-87.8003,42.6728],[-87.801,42.671]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Kenosha\",\"state\":\"WI\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f4e4b07f02db5f079b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hutchinson, R. D.","contributorId":99112,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hutchinson","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144432,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2477,"text":"wsp1608M - 1970 - Hydrographic and sedimentation survey of Kajakai Reservoir, Afghanistan","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:25","indexId":"wsp1608M","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1608","chapter":"M","title":"Hydrographic and sedimentation survey of Kajakai Reservoir, Afghanistan","docAbstract":"A hydrographic and sedimentation survey of Band-e Kajakai (Kajakai Reservoir) on the Darya-ye Hirmand (Helmand River) was carried out during the period September through December 1968. Underwater mapping techniques were used to determine the reservoir capacity as of 1968. Sediment range lines were established and monumented to facilitate future sedimentation surveys. Afghanistan engineers and technicians were trained to carry out future reservoir surveys. Samples were obtained of the reservoir bed and in the river upstream from the reservoir. Virtually no sediments coarser than about 0.063 millimeter were found on the reservoir bed surface. The median diameter of sands being transported into the reservoir ranged from 0.040 to 0.110 millimeter. The average annual rate of sedimentation was 7,800 acre-feet. Assuming an average density of 50 pounds per cubic foot (800 kilograms per cubic meter), the estimated average sediment inflow to the reservoir was about 8,500,000 tons (7,700,000 metric tons) per year. \r\n\r\nThe decrease in capacity at spillway elevation for the period 1953 to 1968 due to sediment deposition was 7.8 percent, or 117,700 acre-feet. Redefinition of several contours above the fill area resulted in an increase in capacity at spillway elevation of 13,600 acre-feet; thus, the net change in capacity was 7.0 percent, or 104,800 acre-feet. \r\n\r\nBased on current data and an estimated rate of compaction of deposited sediment, the assumption of no appreciable change in hydrologic conditions in the drainage area, the leading edge of the principal delta will reach the irrigation outlet in 40-45 years. \r\n\r\nIt is recommended that a resurvey of sediment range lines be made during the period 1973-75.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. G.P.O.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1608M","usgsCitation":"Perkins, D.C., and Culbertson, J.K., 1970, Hydrographic and sedimentation survey of Kajakai Reservoir, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1608, iv, 43 p. :ill. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1608M.","productDescription":"iv, 43 p. :ill. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138750,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608m/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":28553,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608m/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a2de4b07f02db6146cd","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Perkins, Don C.","contributorId":59429,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Perkins","given":"Don","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145259,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Culbertson, James K.","contributorId":31371,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Culbertson","given":"James","email":"","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145258,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":3369,"text":"cir629 - 1970 - Water laws and concepts","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-25T12:59:32","indexId":"cir629","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"629","title":"Water laws and concepts","docAbstract":"Throughout human history various laws and customs have developed concerning the individual rights and rights in common to the waters of the earth. Many existing laws and concepts are clearly influenced by the environment in which they originated and reflect the relative abundance or scarcity of water. Many concepts reflect the people's original interests in the water and once established have been passed from generation to generation with little modification. Some laws and concepts have been carried by people in their migrations and colonial expansions to vastly different environments, with rather curious consequences. In many places water laws that had been well adapted to the natural environment have become less tenable because of man's activities in modifying that environment, or because of increasing use of water: Increasing consumptive use shifts the water economy toward lesser abundance or increasing deficiency; increasing nonconsumptive use results in pollution of the water resources, so that they become less suitable for other users. The water-rights systems in the United States vary from State to State: some are reasonably fitted to their environment, some have outlived their place in history, some are wasteful of water, some show favoritism to certain special interests or segments of the population. Water-use rights are universally recognized as real property, with constitutional protection against deprivation without due process of law.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir629","usgsCitation":"Thomas, H.E., 1970, Water laws and concepts: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 629, iii, 18 p. ;26 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir629.","productDescription":"iii, 18 p. ;26 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":30379,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1970/0629/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":124564,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1970/0629/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e478fe4b07f02db48a081","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Thomas, H. E.","contributorId":12829,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thomas","given":"H.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":146733,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1670,"text":"wsp1984 - 1970 - Hydrologic effects of floodwater-retarding structures on Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Texas","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-14T20:01:38.704886","indexId":"wsp1984","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1984","title":"Hydrologic effects of floodwater-retarding structures on Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Texas","docAbstract":"The Texas District of the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey has collected and analyzed hydrologic data since 1953 to define the effects of systems of floodwater-retarding structures on downstream water and sediment yield. The district project includes 11 study areas ranging from 18 to 80 square miles in size and from 0 to 67 in percent of study area controlled by floodwaterretarding structures. The 11 study areas are within that part of Texas where the west-to-east average annual runoff ranges from about 2 to 7 inches. This report presents results of analyses, development of methodolgy, and results of application of methods for defining the downstream effects of systems of floodwaterretarding structures.
\nAnnual inflow to and outflow from the system of floodwater-retarding reservoirs in seven of the 11 study areas were found to be related by the equation: O=0.98/ 0.68, where O is annual outflow, in inches, and / is annual net inflow, in inches. Transmission loss of structure outflow to the downstream study-area stream-gaging station was determined and compared with the transmission loss of natural flood flow between tandem stream-gaging stations on Denton Creek, a tributary to Elm Fork Trinity River above Dallas.
\nTrap efficiency of most floodwater-retarding structures was found by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service to be about 97 percent. Downstream increases in suspended-sediment concentration in the outflow were found to be large in a study area with mostly silt and clay sediments, but even a large increase in suspendedsediment concentration did not represent a significant quantitative pickup of sediment by the outflow water.
\nWater consumption in floodwater-retarding reservoirs from the combined actions of evaporation, evapotranspiration, and seepage was found to be as much as twice the average annual consumption attributable to evaporation alone. Average annual consumption in reservoirs in the seven study areas analyzed ranged from 1.57 inches of equivalent runoff in the easternmost study area, where annual runoff averaged 6.96 inches, to 0.77 inch of equivalent runoff in the westernmost study area, where the average annual runoff was 2.35 inches. The effect of consumption on downstream flow is partially offset by rainfall on pool surface. Studies covering as much as 15 years of streamflow record at the stream-gaging stations that gage outflow from the Deep and Honey Creek study areas indicated no increase in base flow.
\nMultiple-linear-regression techniques were used in developing methodology to determine reservoir consumption in seven study areas. The physical and climatic fnctors influencing consumption were grouped as variables in regard to their relative effect on the actions of evaporation, evapotranspiration, and seepage. The resulting generalized equation was then used in synthesizing the consumptive effects of a planned system of 162 floodwater-retarding reservoirs controlling 26 percent of a 1,660-square-mile drainage basin upstream from a major water-supply reservoir. The analyses were based on the assumption that all water consumed at the floodwater-retarding reservoirs would have reached the downstream watersupply reservoir. Water-sediment discharge relationships were derived for the runoff into the structures as well as for the runoff through and below the structures. A mathematical response model of the floodwater-retarding reservoir systems and the entire drainage basin was computer programed to yield monthly water and sediment inflow to the water-supply reservoir.
\nResults of the response model showed that with full development, depletion of annual yield to the large reservoir would be as much as 10 percent in the early years; but after the permanent pools of the floodwater-retarding structures had mostly filled with sediment, depletion of annual yield would be generally less than 1 percent. The depletion of yield to Garza-Little Elm Reservoir during the 39-year synthesized period of study was estimated as 296,800 acre-feet out of 18,256,000 acre-feet total yield. During the same period, the floodwater-retarding structures were estimated to have kept 19,700 acre-feet of sediment from being deposited in the reservoir.
\n\"Firm\"- or \"critical\"-yield studies were made of the large reservoir on the basis of two sets of conditions : with floodwater-retarding structures in the drainage basin, and without such structures. Results of the firm-yield studies indicated that with full development, annual firm yield would be initially reduced by 10 percent. After 30 or more years, when the permanent pools of the floodwaterretarding reservoirs would be mostly filled with sediment, the firm yield would be almost the same with or without the upstream development.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1984","usgsCitation":"Gilbert, C.R., and Sauer, S.P., 1970, Hydrologic effects of floodwater-retarding structures on Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1984, Report: vii, 95 p.; 3 Plates: 39.48 x 33.34 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1984.","productDescription":"Report: vii, 95 p.; 3 Plates: 39.48 x 33.34 inches or smaller","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":583,"text":"Texas Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":414124,"rank":6,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_25366.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":94719,"rank":5,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1984/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":94718,"rank":4,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1984/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":138233,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1984/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":26745,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1984/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":94717,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1984/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Texas","otherGeospatial":"Garza-Little Elm Reservoir","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -96.775,\n 33.083\n ],\n [\n -96.775,\n 33.625\n ],\n [\n -97.617,\n 33.625\n ],\n [\n -97.617,\n 33.083\n ],\n [\n -96.775,\n 33.083\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a1be4b07f02db60703b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Gilbert, Clarence R.","contributorId":30965,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gilbert","given":"Clarence","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143950,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Sauer, Stanley P.","contributorId":38966,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Sauer","given":"Stanley","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":143951,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":2124,"text":"wsp1983 - 1970 - An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":55910,"text":"ofr69150 - 1969 - An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota","indexId":"ofr69150","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":2124,"text":"wsp1983 - 1970 - An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota","indexId":"wsp1983","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"title":"An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota"},"id":1}],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-03-12T13:14:40","indexId":"wsp1983","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1983","title":"An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota","docAbstract":"The Wadena area is part of a large sandy plain in central Minnesota whose soils have low water-holding capacity. Drought conditions which adversely affect plant growth frequently occur in the summer when moisture is most needed. To reduce the risk of crop failure in the area supplemental irrigation is on the increase.
\nThis study was made to evaluate the ground-water resources of the area and to determine possible effects of development on them. About half the area's approximately 102,000 acres is considered irrigable at the present time. In 1967, about 1,100 acres were under irrigation.
\nOutwash sand and gravel, which forms the water-table aquifer, is the main source of water presently known. Saturated thickness ranges from 0 to 70 feet and averages about 36 feet. Sandy till underlies the outwash. Within the till are sand and gravel lenses whose distribution and water-yielding characteristics were not determined.
\nAverage annual precipitation at the U.S. Weather Bureau station in Wadena from 1934 to 1967 was 26.4 inches, of which about 22.5 inches was lost by evapotranspiration, and the balance of 3.9 inches was surface runoff. Even in wet years, evapotranspiration during the .summer months exceeds precipitation, and a moisture deficiency for optimum plant growth occurs.
\nIn 1967, about 8 inches of the total precipitation of 19.3 inches reached the water table. Recharge to the water table in 1967 was about 70,000 acre-feet.
\nResult of field aquifer (pumping) tests were used to estimate transmissivity values at test-hole sites. Information gained by auger test drilling was the basis for estimating transmissivity values elsewhere. Transmissivity of the watertable aquifer in most of the Wadena area ranges from 15,000 to 120,000 gallons per day per foot. A map was prepared to show the maximum yield, in gallons per minute, which might be obtained from individual wells completed in the water-table aquifer. The map indicates that in about 60 percent of the area, individual wells can be pumped at rates greater than 300 gallons per minute for a 30-day period if drawdown in the pumped well is two-thirds the saturated thickness after correction for dewatering.
\nQuality of both ground and surface waters is such that they are well suited for irrigation. Locally, nitrate concentrations in ground water, in excess of the U.S. Public Health Service's drinking water standards, might be related to a local source of organic pollution or to the increased use of fertilizers which accompanies irrigation.
\nAn electric analog model of the water-table aquifer in the Wadena area was built and used to analyze possible effects of ground-water development of the hydrologic system. The model was designed to .simulate existing hydrologic conditions and used to predict changes in the system which might result from development. The withdrawal of large quantities of ground water would lower the water table, thereby reducing evapotranspiration losses and making more water available for beneficial use. Additional water would be salvaged when normal ground-water discharge to streams is intercepted by pumping from wells.
\nAnalyses were made to determine effects of development on ground-water levels under different development schemes both after a single irrigation season and after 5 and 20 successive years of irrigation. Where development is concentrated, some interference between wells can be expected. Although water levels recover rapidly when pumps are shut off, recovery will not be complete prior to the next irrigation season in heavily developed areas. After several years of watertable lowering, yields from wells will decrease because of deceased saturated thickness, unless climatic changes result in abnormally high amounts of recharge.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/wsp1983","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the West Central Minnesota Resource Conservation and Development Project and the Minnesota Department of Conservation, Division of Waters, Soils and Minerals","usgsCitation":"Lindholm, F., 1970, An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1983, Document: v, 56 p.; 12 Plates: 24 x 19 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1983.","productDescription":"Document: v, 56 p.; 12 Plates: 24 x 19 inches or smaller","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":392,"text":"Minnesota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":27719,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-08.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27720,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-09.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27723,"rank":411,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-12.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27722,"rank":410,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-11.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27724,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27712,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-01.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27713,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-02.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":138257,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27721,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-10.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27714,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-03.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27715,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-04.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27716,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-05.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27717,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-06.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":27718,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1983/plate-07.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"country":"United States","state":"Minnesota","otherGeospatial":"Wadena area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -95.25,\n 46.541667\n ],\n [\n -95.25,\n 46.316667\n ],\n [\n -94.75,\n 46.316667\n ],\n [\n -94.75,\n 46.541667\n ],\n [\n -95.25,\n 46.541667\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adbe4b07f02db685a66","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lindholm, F.G.","contributorId":41807,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lindholm","given":"F.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144705,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2889,"text":"wsp1899B - 1970 - Water resources of Lee County, Mississippi","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:35","indexId":"wsp1899B","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1899","chapter":"B","title":"Water resources of Lee County, Mississippi","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1899B","usgsCitation":"Wasson, B.E., and Thomson, F., 1970, Water resources of Lee County, Mississippi: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1899, vi, 63 p. :illus., maps. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1899B.","productDescription":"vi, 63 p. :illus., maps. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138905,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899b/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":29534,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1899b/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49f4e4b07f02db5f07af","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wasson, B. E.","contributorId":11204,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wasson","given":"B.","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145962,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Thomson, F.H.","contributorId":8132,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thomson","given":"F.H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145961,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":2737,"text":"wsp2002 - 1970 - Water in urban planning, Salt Creek Basin, Illinois water management as related to alternative land-use practices","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:34","indexId":"wsp2002","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2002","title":"Water in urban planning, Salt Creek Basin, Illinois water management as related to alternative land-use practices","docAbstract":"Water management can be an integral part of urban comprehensive planning in a large metropolitan area. Water both imposes constraints on land use and offers opportunities for coordinated land and water management. Salt Creek basin in Cook and Du Page Counties of the Chicago metropolitan area is typical of rapidly developing suburban areas and has been selected to illustrate some of these constraints and opportunities and to suggest the effects of alternative solutions. The present study concentrates on the related problems of ground-water recharge, water quality, management of flood plains, and flood-control measures. Salt Creek basin has a drainage area of 150 square miles. It is in flat to. gently rolling terrain, underlain by glacial drift as much as 200 feet thick which covers a dolomite aquifer. In 1964, the population of the basin was about 400,000, and 40 percent of the land was in urban development. The population is expected to number 550,000 to 650,000 by 1990, and most of the land will be taken by urban development. \r\n\r\nSalt Creek is a sluggish stream, typical of small drainage channels in the headwaters area of northeastern Illinois. Low flows of 15 to 25 cubic feet per second in the lower part of the basin consist largely of sewage effluent. \r\n\r\nNearly all the public water supplies in the basin depend on ground water. Of the total pumpage of 27.5 million gallons per day, 17.5 million gallons per day is pumped from the deep (Cambrian-Ordovician) aquifers and 10 million gallons per day is pumped from the shallow (Silurian dolomite and glacial drift) aquifers. The potential yield of the shallow aquifers, particularly glacial drift in the northern part of the basin, far exceeds present use. The largest concentration of pumpage from the shallow ,aquifers is in the Hinsdale-La Grange area. Salt Creek serves as an important source of recharge to these supplies, particularly just east of Hinsdale. The entire reach of Salt Creek south and east of Elmhurst can be regarded as an area of potential recharge to the shallow aquifers. Preservation of the effectiveness of these potential recharge areas should be considered in land-use planning.\r\n\r\nSalt Creek is polluted in times of both low and high flow. Most communities in the basin in Du Page County discharge their treated sewage into the creek, whereas those in Cook County transfer their sewage to plants of the Metropolitan Sanitary District outside the basin. During periods of high runoff, combined storm runoff and overflow from sanitary sewers enter the creek. Such polluted water detracts from the stream's esthetic and recreational potential and poses a threat to ground-water supplies owing to induced recharge of polluted water to shallow aquifers. Alternative approaches .to the pollution problem include improvement of the degree of sewage treatment, detention and treatment of storm runoff, dilution of sewage through flow augmentation, or transfer of sewage from the basin to a central treatment plant. To result in an enhanced environment, the streambed would have to be cleansed of accumulated sludge deposits. \r\n\r\nThe overbank flooding in Salt Creek basin every 2 to 3 years presents problems because of encroachments and developments on the flood plains. Flood plains in an urban area can be managed by identifying them, by recognizing that either their natural storage capacity or equivalent artificial capacity is needed to accommodate floods, and by planning land use accordingly. Examples of effective floodplain management include (1) preservation of greenbelts or regional parks along stream courses, (2) use of flood plains for recreation, parking lots. or other low-intensity uses, (3) use of flood-proofed commercial buildings, and (4) provision for compensatory storage to replace natural storage capacity. Results of poor flood-plain management include uncontrolled residential development and encroachment by fill into natural storage areas where no compensatory storage has been","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey; for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp2002","usgsCitation":"Spieker, A.M., 1970, Water in urban planning, Salt Creek Basin, Illinois water management as related to alternative land-use practices: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2002, ix, 147 p. :illus., maps. ;23 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp2002.","productDescription":"ix, 147 p. :illus., maps. ;23 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138915,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2002/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":29163,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2002/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a08e4b07f02db5f9fde","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Spieker, Andrew Maute","contributorId":78716,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Spieker","given":"Andrew","email":"","middleInitial":"Maute","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145690,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":1912,"text":"wsp1608K - 1970 - Water resources and related geology of Dera Ismail Khan district, West Pakistan, with reference to the availability of ground water for development","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:24","indexId":"wsp1608K","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1608","chapter":"K","title":"Water resources and related geology of Dera Ismail Khan district, West Pakistan, with reference to the availability of ground water for development","docAbstract":"Dera Ismail (D.I.) Khan District contains an area of 3,450 square miles between the right bank of the Indus River and the Sulaiman Range in westcentral West Pakistan. Agriculture is the principal source of income in the District, but only a small part of the arable land is fully utilized. The region is semiarid and has an average annual rainfall of about 9 inches and a potential evapotranspirational rate of eight to nine times the annual rainfall. Thus, rainfall alone is not adequate for high-intensity cropping. \r\n\r\nIrrigation is practiced near the Indus River; the Paharpur Canal is used, as well as the traditional inundation method. Elsewhere in the District, adequate water is supplied to local areas by karezes, perennial streams from the mountains, and some recently installed tubewells (see 'Glossary'). Further development of ground-water supplies would permit a more effective utilization of most of the presently tilled land and would allow additional land to be farmed. \r\n\r\nD.I. Khan District is primarily an alluvial plain that slopes from the mountain ranges in the northern and western parts of the District toward the Indus River. Rocks in the bordering mountains are of Paleozoic to early or middle Pleistocene age. The unconsolidated rocks of the plain, of middle (?) Pleistocene to Holocene (Recent) age, consist of piedmont deposits derived from the hills to the north and west and of alluvium laid down by the Indus River. These deposits interfinger in a transitional zone about 8 to 12 miles west of the river. Lithologic and structural features indicate that the unconsolidated rocks possibly may be divided into broad units. \r\n\r\nThe investigations in D.I. Khan District have revealed two main areas of potential ground-water development based on considerations of both permeability and chemical quality of the ground water: \r\n\r\n1. A belt about 10 miles wide parallels the Indus River from the Khisor Range southward to the area immediately south of D.I. Khan town. In this belt, the material penetrated by test holes and tubewells consists predominantly of sand, which in tubewells can yield from 2 to 3 cfs (cubic feet per second) of water with only moderate drawdown. Also in this belt, ground water of good chemical quality extends to depths of 1,000 feet or more. \r\n\r\n2. The area from the mouth of the Gumal River gorge to the vicinity of Kot Azam contains sand and gravel strata that may yield from 1 to 3 cfs of water, which contains 500 to 1,500 ppm (parts per million) of total dissolved solids. \r\n\r\nOther marginal parts of the District also contain water of good chemical quality, but developmental prospects are somewhat poorer because of greater depths to water, lower permeabilities, or greater depths to aquifers, all of which would require greater costs in the tubewell installations. The stratification or zoning of water of different chemical qualities to some extent governs the local availability of useful water. Generally, the \r\nground water of poorest quality is found in the shallow zone, and quality improves with depth. The central part of the District, in a belt reaching from the vicinity of Tank southward to the Indus River near Dera Ghfizi Khan District, contains highly mineralized water and few aquifers. The mineralization of water in this belt is due primarily to large concentrations of sodium and sulfate and thus differs from the main part of the Punjab \r\nregion where highly mineralized waters are generally chloride waters. Radical changes in water quality, both horizontally and vertically, are common in the District. Changes in chemical quality of water from large-capacity wells near areas of highly mineralized water are taking place, and further changes may be expected as withdrawals continue and increase in magnitude. Under present conditions, surface-water supplies are fully utilized, and ground water is the largest supply available for development-other than \r\nthat from the Indus River.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. G.P.O.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1608K","usgsCitation":"Hood, J.W., Khan, L.A., and Jawaid, K., 1970, Water resources and related geology of Dera Ismail Khan district, West Pakistan, with reference to the availability of ground water for development: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1608, viii, 74 p. :ill., maps (2 folded col.) ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1608K.","productDescription":"viii, 74 p. :ill., maps (2 folded col.) ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138173,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608k/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27230,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1608k/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a06e4b07f02db5f8887","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hood, J. W.","contributorId":87908,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hood","given":"J.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144354,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Khan, Lutfe Ali","contributorId":102459,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Khan","given":"Lutfe","email":"","middleInitial":"Ali","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144355,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Jawaid, Khalid","contributorId":20309,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jawaid","given":"Khalid","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144353,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":68257,"text":"ha338 - 1970 - Water resources of the Black River basin, southeastern Michigan","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-12-29T16:22:49","indexId":"ha338","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":318,"text":"Hydrologic Atlas","code":"HA","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"338","title":"Water resources of the Black River basin, southeastern Michigan","docAbstract":"The Black River basin is characterized by flat topography in its central part and by more hilly areas located principally along its boundary.
Stream gradients are flat, having slopes of less than 10 feet per mile, except in areas near the basin divide and in isolated areas within the basin.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/ha338","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers","usgsCitation":"Knutilla, R., 1970, Water resources of the Black River basin, southeastern Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Atlas 338, Document: 10 p.; 3 Plates: 40.88 x 31.80 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/ha338.","productDescription":"Document: 10 p.; 3 Plates: 40.88 x 31.80 inches or smaller","costCenters":[{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science 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1970 - Principal facts for gravity stations observed during March 1969 in the vicinity of Luke Air Force Base, Maricopa County, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-25T12:51:24","indexId":"ofr70262","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-262","title":"Principal facts for gravity stations observed during March 1969 in the vicinity of Luke Air Force Base, Maricopa County, Arizona","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr70262","usgsCitation":"Peterson, D.L., and Eaton, G.P., 1970, Principal facts for gravity stations observed during March 1969 in the vicinity of Luke Air Force Base, Maricopa County, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-262, 5 p. ;21 x 28 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70262.","productDescription":"5 p. ;21 x 28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":247332,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0262/report.pdf","size":"2430","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":251801,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0262/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa8e4b07f02db6678b1","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Peterson, Donald L.","contributorId":28597,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Peterson","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171059,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Eaton, Gordon P.","contributorId":67077,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Eaton","given":"Gordon","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":171060,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":34239,"text":"b1312A - 1970 - Structural control of geochemical anomalies in the Greaterville mining district, southeast of Tucson, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-11-04T20:38:55.44186","indexId":"b1312A","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1312","chapter":"A","title":"Structural control of geochemical anomalies in the Greaterville mining district, southeast of Tucson, Arizona","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
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Principal causes of damage were: (1) landslides, landslide-generated waves, and seismic sea waves that destroyed costly port facilities built on deltas; (2) regional tectonic subsidence that necessitated raising and armoring 22 miles of roadbed made susceptible to marine erosion; and (3), of greatest importance in terms of potential damage in seismically active areas, a general loss of strength experienced by wet waterlaid unconsolidated granular sediments (silt to coarse gravel) that allowed embankments to settle and enabled sediments to undergo fiowlike displacement toward topographic depressions, even in fiat-lying areas. The term “landspreading” is proposed for the lateral displacement and distension of mobilized sediments; landspreading appears to have resulted largely from liquefaction. Because mobilization is time dependent and its effects cumulative, the long duration of strong ground motion (timed as 3 to 4 minutes) along the southern 150 miles of the rail line made landspreading an important cause of damage. Sediments moved toward natural and manmade topographic depressions (stream valleys, gullies, drainage ditches, borrow pits, and lakes). Stream widths decreased, often about 20 inches but at some places by as much as 6.5 feet, and sediments moved upward beneath stream channels. Landspreading toward streams and even small drainage ditches crushed concrete and metal culverts. Bridge superstructures were compressed and failed by lateral buckling, or more commonly were driven into, through, or over bulkheads. Piles and piers were torn free of superstructures by moving sediments, crowded toward stream channels, and lifted in the center. The lifted piles arched the superstructures. Vertical pile displacement was independent of the depth of the pile penetration in the sediment and thus was due to vertical movement of the sediments, rather than to differential compaction. The fact that bridge piles were carried laterally without notable tilting suggests that mobilization exceeded pile depths, which averaged about 20 feet. Field observations, largely duplicated by vibrated sandbox models of stream channels, suggest that movement was distributed throughout the sediments, rather than restricted to finite failure surfaces. Landspreading generated stress that produced cracks in the ground surface adjacent to depressions. The distribution of this stress controlled the crack patterns: tension cracks parallel to straight or concave streambanks, shear cracks intersecting at 45° to 70° on convex banks where there was some component of radial spreading, and orthogonal cracks on the insides of tight meander bends or islands where spreading was omnidirectional. Ground cracks of these kinds commonly extended 500 feet, and occasionally about 1,000 feet, back from streams, which indicates that landspreading occurred over large areas. In areas of landspreading, highway and railroad embankments, pavements, and rails were pulled apart endways and were displaced laterally if they lay at an angle to the direction of sediment displacement. Sediment movement commonly skewed bridges that crossed streams obliquely. The maximum horizontal skew was 10 feet. Embankment settlement, nearly universal in areas of landspreading, also occurred in areas where there was no evidence for widespread loss of strength in the unconsolidated sediments. In the latter areas embankments themselves clearly caused the loss of bearing strength in the underlying sediment. In both areas, settlement was accompanied by the formation of ground cracks approximately parallel to the embankment in the adjacent sediments. Sediment-laden ground water was discharged from the cracks, and extreme local settlements (as much as 6 ft) were associated with large discharges. Landspreading was accompanied by transient horizontal displacement of the ground that pounded bridge ends with slight or considerable force. The deck of a 105-foot bridge was repeatedly arched up off its piles by transient compression. Bridges may also have developed high horizontal accelerations. One bridge deck, driven through its bulkhead, appears to have had an acceleration of at least 1.1 to 1.7 g; however, most evidence for high accelerations is ambiguous. Limited standard penetration data show that landspreading damage was not restricted to soft sediments. Some bridges were severely damaged by displacement of piles driven in sediments classified as compact and dense. Total thickness of unconsolidated sediments strongly controlled the degree of damage. In areas underlain by wet water-laid sediments the degree of damage to uniformly designed and built wooden railroad bridges shows a closer correlation with total sediment thickness at the bridge site than with the grain size of the material in which the piles were driven. Local geology and physiography largely controlled the kind, distribution, and severity of damage to the railroad. This relationship is so clear that maps of surficial geology and physiography of damaged areas of the rail belt show that only a few geologic-physiographic units serve to identify these areas: 1. Bedrock and glacial till on bedrock. No foundation displacements, but ground vibration increased toward the area of maximum strain-energy release. 2. Glacial outwash terraces. Landspreading and damage ranged from none where the water table was low and the terrace undissected to severe where the water table was near the surface and the terrace dissected by streams. 3. Inactive flood plains. Landspreading, ground cracking, flooding by ejected ground water, and damage were generally slight but increased to severe toward lower, wetter active flood plains or river channels. 4. Active flood plains. Landspreading, ground cracking, and flooding were nearly universal and were greater than on adjacent inactive flood plains. 5. Fan deltas. Radial downhill spreading and ground cracking were considerable near the lower edges of the fan deltas and were accompanied by ground-water discharge. Landslides were common from edges of deltas. Damage, landspreading, ground crack-ing, vibration, and flooding by ground water generally increased with (1) increasing thickness of unconsolidated sediments, (2) decreasing depth to the water table, (3) proximity to topographic depressions, and (4) proximity to the area of maximum strain-energy release.","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on transportation, communications, and utilities (Professional Paper 545)","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/pp545D","usgsCitation":"McCulloch, D.S., and Bonilla, M.G., 1970, Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on the Alaska Railroad: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 545, Report: viii, 161 p.; 4 Plates: 42.15 inches x 12.39 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp545D.","productDescription":"Report: viii, 161 p.; 4 Plates: 42.15 inches x 12.39 inches or smaller","numberOfPages":"173","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":380,"text":"Menlo ParkCalif. Office-Earthquake Science Center","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":396000,"rank":8,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_99039.htm"},{"id":277819,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/pp545d_plate4.pdf"},{"id":277818,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/pp545d_plate3.pdf"},{"id":277817,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/pp545d_plate2.pdf"},{"id":277816,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/pp545d_plate1.pdf"},{"id":277815,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/index.html"},{"id":277814,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/pp545d_text.pdf"},{"id":121756,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0545d/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -150,\n 60\n ],\n [\n -149.5,\n 60\n ],\n [\n -149.5,\n 62\n ],\n [\n -150,\n 62\n ],\n [\n -150,\n 60\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a27e4b07f02db610609","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"McCulloch, David S. dmccullo@usgs.gov","contributorId":3100,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McCulloch","given":"David","email":"dmccullo@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":208797,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Bonilla, Manuel G.","contributorId":74384,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bonilla","given":"Manuel","email":"","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":208798,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":56042,"text":"ofr70246 - 1970 - A continuing program for estimating ground-water pumpage in California--Methods","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-27T11:24:14","indexId":"ofr70246","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-246","title":"A continuing program for estimating ground-water pumpage in California--Methods","docAbstract":"Municipal and agricultural ground-water pumpage is being estimated for the principal ground-water basins in California. Because of its anticipated use in analog or digital hydrologic models, agricultural pumpage is estimated for unit areas.
Estimated municipal pumpage is based on census figures and population projections and on pumpage reported by organizations in the San Joaquin Valley supplying water to communities. On the average, 0.25 to 0.40 acre- foot of water is used annually per capita, depending upon the population and number of industries in the community. The product of population by appropriate per capita use factor gives an estimated annual pumpage for a municipality.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr70246","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the California Department of Water Resources","usgsCitation":"Ogilbee, W., and Mitten, H.T., 1970, A continuing program for estimating ground-water pumpage in California--Methods: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-246, ii, 22 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70246.","productDescription":"ii, 22 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":174946,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0246/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":342536,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0246/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"8.24 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b25e4b07f02db6af818","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ogilbee, William","contributorId":106093,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ogilbee","given":"William","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254684,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Mitten, Hugh T.","contributorId":103652,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mitten","given":"Hugh","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254683,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":56019,"text":"ofr70196 - 1970 - An investigation of floods in Hawaii through September 30, 1969","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:12:07","indexId":"ofr70196","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-196","title":"An investigation of floods in Hawaii through September 30, 1969","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr70196","usgsCitation":"Lee, R., and Ewart, C., 1970, An investigation of floods in Hawaii through September 30, 1969: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-196, 168 p., 5 figs., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70196.","productDescription":"168 p., 5 figs.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181790,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad6e4b07f02db6842ed","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lee, R.","contributorId":97153,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lee","given":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254649,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Ewart, C.J.","contributorId":76339,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ewart","given":"C.J.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254648,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":56023,"text":"ofr70203 - 1970 - Evaluation of the streamflow-data program in Oregon","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-01-30T11:52:48","indexId":"ofr70203","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-203","title":"Evaluation of the streamflow-data program in Oregon","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr70203","usgsCitation":"Lystrom, D., 1970, Evaluation of the streamflow-data program in Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-203, 28 p., 3 figs., 2 pls., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70203.","productDescription":"28 p., 3 figs., 2 pls.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":181793,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0203/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":281740,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0203/report.pdf"},{"id":281741,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0203/plate-1.pdf"},{"id":281742,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0203/plate-2.pdf"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a08e4b07f02db5f9fe4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lystrom, D.J.","contributorId":88793,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lystrom","given":"D.J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254654,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":56021,"text":"ofr70201 - 1970 - Test wells T-15, T-16, T-17, T-18, and Rc-3, White Sands Missile Range, Dona Ana and Socorro Counties, New Mexico","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:12:07","indexId":"ofr70201","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-201","title":"Test wells T-15, T-16, T-17, T-18, and Rc-3, White Sands Missile Range, Dona Ana and Socorro Counties, New Mexico","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr70201","usgsCitation":"Lyford, F.P., 1970, Test wells T-15, T-16, T-17, T-18, and Rc-3, White Sands Missile Range, Dona Ana and Socorro Counties, New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-201, 44 p., 14 figs., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70201.","productDescription":"44 p., 14 figs.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":100430,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/report.pdf","size":"16492","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100431,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-03_a.pdf","size":"9589","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100432,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-03_b.pdf","size":"11872","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100433,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-05_a.pdf","size":"9138","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100434,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-05_b.pdf","size":"12820","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100435,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-08_a.pdf","size":"701","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100436,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-08_b.pdf","size":"803","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100437,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-11_a.pdf","size":"6826","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100438,"rank":407,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-11_b.pdf","size":"6961","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100439,"rank":408,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-14_a.pdf","size":"4490","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":100440,"rank":409,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/plate-14_b.pdf","size":"4303","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":181791,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0201/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad9e4b07f02db684b52","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lyford, F. P.","contributorId":30223,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lyford","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":254652,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":32671,"text":"pp529E - 1970 - Atlantic Continental Shelf and Slope of the United States - Ostracode zoogeography in the southern Nova Scotian and northern Virginian faunal provinces","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-05-25T11:21:44.229727","indexId":"pp529E","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"529","chapter":"E","title":"Atlantic Continental Shelf and Slope of the United States - Ostracode zoogeography in the southern Nova Scotian and northern Virginian faunal provinces","docAbstract":"Ostracodes were identified from 236 bottom samples taken in the region from Nova Scotia to Long Island. There is a distinctive difference between the assemblages in the northern and southern parts of this region. Many sublittoral cryophilic species are not present south of Cape Cod or the Northeast Channel, and several thermophilic species a.re not .found north of Cape Cod or Georges Bank. The ostracode assemblages in the southern part of the cold-temperate Nova Scotian province are a mixture of amphiatlantic cryophilic species and endemic, mainly thermophilic species; European forms make up approximately 50 percent of the species. Less than 25 percent of the species known from the mild-temperate Virginian province have been reported from European waters. More endemic species pass Cape Cod from the south than amphiatlantic cryophilic species do from the north. This is consistent with the fact that summer isotherms are more compressed than winter isotherms in the Cape Cod region, and the southern limit of distribution of most amphiatlantic species is regulated by summer high temperatures. The distribution data on which these interpretations are based are presented in a series of .figures and over 60 species distribution maps.
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