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The chemical composition of natural water is derived from many different sources of solutes, including gases and aerosols from the atmosphere, weathering and erosion of rocks and soil, solution or precipitation reactions occurring below the land surface, and cultural effects resulting from activities of man. Some of the processes of solution or precipitation of minerals can be closely evaluated by means of principles of chemical equilibrium including the law of mass action and the Nernst equation. Other processes are irreversible and require consideration of reaction mechanisms and rates. The chemical composition of the crustal rocks of the earth and the composition of the ocean and the atmosphere are significant in evaluating sources of solutes in natural fresh water.

\n

The ways in which solutes are taken up or precipitated and the amounts present in solution are influenced by many environmental factors, especially climate, structure and position: of rock strata, and biochemical effects associated with life cycles of plants and animals, both microscopic and macroscopic. Taken all together and in application with the further influence of the general circulation of all water in the hydrologic cycle, the chemical principles and environmental factors form a basis for the developing science of natural-water chemistry.

\n

Fundamental data used in the determination of water quality are obtained by the chemical analysis of water samples in the laboratory or onsite sensing of chemical properties in the field. Sampling is complicated by changes in composition of moving water and the effects of particulate suspended material. Most of the constituents determined are reported in gravimetric units, usually milligrams per liter or milliequivalents per liter.

\n

More than 60 constituents and properties are included in water analyses frequently enough to provide a basis for consideration of the sources from which each is generally derived, most probable forms of elements and ions in solution, solubility controls, expected concentration ranges and other chemical factors. Concentrations of elements that are commonly present in amounts less than a few tens of micrograms per liter cannot always be easily explained, but present information suggests many are controlled by solubility of hydroxide or carbonate or by sorption on solid particles.

\n

Chemical analyses may be grouped and statistically evaluated by averages, frequency distributions, or ion correlations to summarize large volumes of data. Graphing of analyses or of groups of analyses aids in showing chemical relationships among waters, probable sources of solutes, areal water-quality regimen, and water-resources evaluation. Graphs may show water type based on chemical composition, relationships among ions, or groups of ions in individual waters or many waters considered simultaneously. The relationships of water quality to hydrologic parameters, such as stream discharge rate or ground-water flow patterns, can be shown by mathematical equations, graphs, and maps.

\n

About 75 water analyses selected from the literature are tabulated to illustrate the relationships described, and some of these, along with many others that are not tabulated, are also utilized in demonstrating graphing and mapping techniques.

\n

Relationships of water composition to source rock type are illustrated by graphs of some of the tabulated analyses. Activities of man may modify water composition extensively through direct effects of pollution and indirect results of water development, such as intrusion of sea water in ground-water aquifiers.

\n

Water-quality standards for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use have been published by various agencies. Irrigation project requirements for water quality are particularly intricate.

\n

Fundamental knowledge of processes that control natural water composition is required for rational management of water quality. 

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Michigan","docAbstract":"

An evaluation of the streamflow data available in Michigan was made to provide guidelines for planning future water resource programs. The basic steps in the evaluation procedure were (1) definition of the long-term goals of the streamflow data program in quantitative form, (2) examination and analysis of all available data to determine which goals have already been met, and (3) consideration of alternate programs and techniques to meet the remaining objectives.

It was found that most goals could not be met by regionalization of the data for gaged basins by regression analysis. This fact indicates that few changes can be made in the present program on the basis of computing data by regression formulas. However, regression formulas that include factors not evaluated as a part of this study, may provide a basis for regional streamflow analysis. The evaluation indicated that some changes in the streamgaging network can be made on the basis of length of records already collected. A streamflow data program based on the guidelines developed in this rstudy is proposed for the future.

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mineral occurrences at Jabal Samran, Al Marasia, and Wutaileh","docAbstract":"

A familiarization and reconnaissance trip was made in the vicinity of Jabal Samran during 7-8 April 1968. The trip was suggested by E. Heaton and W. Liddicoat, Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources for the purpose of inspecting the mineral occurrences at Jabal Samran, Al Marasia, and Wutaileh, and recommending feasible geophysical methods which should be applied to the study of these occurrences.

","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr70156","usgsCitation":"Hase, D., Flanigan, V.J., and Akhrass, M., 1970, Recommended geophysical investigations of mineral occurrences at Jabal Samran, Al Marasia, and Wutaileh: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-156, Report: 5 p.; 1 Plate: 12.79 x 17.57 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70156.","productDescription":"Report: 5 p.; 1 Plate: 12.79 x 17.57 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":147189,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0156/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":498360,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0156/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":498359,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0156/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"500000","country":"Saudi Arabia","otherGeospatial":"Al Marasia, Jabal Samran, Wutaileh","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -120.1569003387927,\n 42.19240723701009\n ],\n [\n -120.10749572008328,\n 38.838079005221346\n ],\n [\n -114.92237135508793,\n 34.88069804889223\n ],\n [\n -114.98297993586107,\n 31.350750228533002\n ],\n [\n -108.86155573128843,\n 31.164630024551755\n ],\n [\n -108.78553410798668,\n 37.13467902221349\n ],\n [\n -113.85445865369462,\n 37.17625160026044\n ],\n [\n -113.88260270021135,\n 42.186786176024185\n ],\n [\n -120.1569003387927,\n 42.19240723701009\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n },\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n 42.32738784712694,\n 15.512723400556823\n ],\n [\n 55.46938659113218,\n 19.579159163878117\n ],\n [\n 56.089387644546775,\n 21.93229208405711\n ],\n [\n 48.656849713663576,\n 28.702737353396188\n ],\n [\n 39.424873163889,\n 32.90306864705684\n ],\n [\n 33.20660131965218,\n 29.600711506057223\n ],\n [\n 42.32738784712694,\n 15.512723400556823\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","publicComments":"(IR)SA 104","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a74e4b07f02db64483c","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hase, D.H.","contributorId":38576,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hase","given":"D.H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":168800,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Flanigan, V. J.","contributorId":81097,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Flanigan","given":"V.","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":168801,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Akhrass, M.N.","contributorId":97121,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Akhrass","given":"M.N.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":168802,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":42622,"text":"ofr70164 - 1970 - Preliminary surficial geologic map of the South Canaan quadrangle, Litchfield County, Connecticut","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:10:30","indexId":"ofr70164","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-164","title":"Preliminary surficial geologic map of the South Canaan quadrangle, Litchfield County, Connecticut","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr70164","usgsCitation":"Holmes, G.W., Newman, W.S., and Melvin, R., 1970, Preliminary surficial geologic map of the South Canaan quadrangle, Litchfield County, Connecticut: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-164, 1 map + 1 explanation sheet, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70164.","productDescription":"1 map + 1 explanation sheet","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":173266,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":80399,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0164/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":80400,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0164/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":80401,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0164/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"scale":"24000","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a4de4b07f02db6271eb","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Holmes, G. William","contributorId":37404,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Holmes","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"William","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":226844,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Newman, Walter S.","contributorId":10092,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Newman","given":"Walter","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":226843,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Melvin, Robert L.","contributorId":96277,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Melvin","given":"Robert L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":226845,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":47977,"text":"ofr71261 - 1970 - On the use of space photography for identifying transportation routes; a summary of problems","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:10:23","indexId":"ofr71261","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"71-261","title":"On the use of space photography for identifying transportation routes; a summary of problems","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/ofr71261","usgsCitation":"Simonett, D.S., Henderson, F.M., and Egbert, D.D., 1970, On the use of space photography for identifying transportation routes; a summary of problems: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 71-261, 23 p. : maps, photos ; 28 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr71261.","productDescription":"23 p. : maps, photos ; 28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":170164,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4af3e4b07f02db691a26","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Simonett, David S.","contributorId":54212,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Simonett","given":"David","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":236611,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Henderson, Floyd M.","contributorId":40658,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Henderson","given":"Floyd","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":236610,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Egbert, Dwight D.","contributorId":38210,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Egbert","given":"Dwight","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":236609,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":35026,"text":"b1296 - 1970 - Core logs of three test holes in Cenozoic lake deposits near Hector, California","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:09:49","indexId":"b1296","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1296","title":"Core logs of three test holes in Cenozoic lake deposits near Hector, California","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. 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Off.,","doi":"10.3133/b1296","usgsCitation":"Madsen, B.M., 1970, Core logs of three test holes in Cenozoic lake deposits near Hector, California: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1296, 43 p, https://doi.org/10.3133/b1296.","productDescription":"43 p","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":165254,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1296/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":62958,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1296/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":62959,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1296/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad8e4b07f02db684a12","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Madsen, Beth M.","contributorId":82761,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Madsen","given":"Beth","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":214003,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":34913,"text":"b1312N - 1970 - Some rare-element mineral deposits in mainland China","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:09:29","indexId":"b1312N","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1312","chapter":"N","title":"Some rare-element mineral deposits in mainland China","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/b1312N","usgsCitation":"Lee, K.Y., 1970, Some rare-element mineral deposits in mainland China: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1312, 34 p, https://doi.org/10.3133/b1312N.","productDescription":"34 p","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":96707,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1312n/report.pdf","size":"2742","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":166258,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1312n/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49e7e4b07f02db5e8254","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lee, K. Y.","contributorId":74351,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lee","given":"K.","email":"","middleInitial":"Y.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":213798,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":22527,"text":"ofr7033 - 1970 - A proposed streamflow-data program for Montana","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-12-22T21:17:09.982113","indexId":"ofr7033","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-33","title":"A proposed streamflow-data program for Montana","docAbstract":"

An evaluation of the streamflow data available in Montana was made to provide guidelines for planning future programs. The basic steps in the evaluation procedures were (1) definition of the long-term goals of the streamflow data program, (2) examination and analysis of all available data to determine which goals have already been met, and (3) consideration of alternate programs and techniques to meet remaining goals. Only one of the goals was met by generalization of the data for gaged basins by regression analysis. The regression method may be more successful at a future time if a more suitable model can be developed, and if an adequate sample of streamflow records can be obtained. In the meantime, other methods of transferring flow characteristics which require some information at the ungaged site may be used. A streamflow data program based on the guidelines developed in this study is proposed.

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