The United States Plowshare program for the peaceful application of nuclear explosives was formally established by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1957. A number of engineering uses for such explosions were proposed and discussed in the late fifties, mostly by personnel of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory under contract to AEC, and several projects were studied in detail during the nuclear weapons test moratorium extending from the fall of 1958 to the fall of 1961. The first Plowshare experiment, Project Gnome, was detonated on December 10, 1961. Since that time phenomenological data have been obtained in many media, including alluvium, tuff, shale, dolomite, salt, basalt, and granite, with explosions at depths ranging from near the surface to about 2,500 meters. After negotiation between El Paso Natural Gas Company and AEC, the first joint industry-government Plowshare experiment, Project Gas-buggy, was detonated on December 10, 1967. The second such experiment,Project Rulison, conducted on September 10, 1969, under the sponsorshipof Austral Oil Company, Inc., the AEC, and the Department of Interior,is currently being evaluated. These two experiments emphasized theU. S. interest in the potential application of underground nuclear explosions to the petroleum industry, especially to gas stimulation in sizable regions of large-scale, low productivity, generally undeveloped resources. (Petroleum as used in this report refers to both gas and oil resources.)
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr71279","usgsCitation":"Terman, M.J., 1970, Environments at U.S. and U.S.S.R. nuclear explosion sites petroleum-stimulation projects: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 71-279, 62 leaves :ill. ;27 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr71279.","productDescription":"iv, 62 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":503717,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1971/0279/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":149323,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1971/0279/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a13e4b07f02db602215","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Terman, Maurice J.","contributorId":10041,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Terman","given":"Maurice","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":172445,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":2812,"text":"wsp1975 - 1970 - Generalization of streamflow characteristics from drainage-basin characteristics","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:26","indexId":"wsp1975","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1975","title":"Generalization of streamflow characteristics from drainage-basin characteristics","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1975","usgsCitation":"Thomas, D.M., and Benson, M.A., 1970, Generalization of streamflow characteristics from drainage-basin characteristics: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1975, vi, 55 p. :illus. ;24 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1975.","productDescription":"vi, 55 p. :illus. ;24 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138820,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1975/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":29340,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1975/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b27e4b07f02db6b0c5e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Thomas, D. M.","contributorId":8827,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Thomas","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145838,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Benson, M. A.","contributorId":32510,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Benson","given":"M.","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":145839,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":16140,"text":"ofr70315 - 1970 - Feasibility of surveying pesticide coverage with airborne fluorometer","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2026-01-07T18:28:58.922326","indexId":"ofr70315","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-315","title":"Feasibility of surveying pesticide coverage with airborne fluorometer","docAbstract":"Response of a Fraunhofer line discriminator (FLD) to varying distributions of granulated corncobs stained with varying concentrations of Rhodamine WT dye was tested on the ground and from an H-19 helicopter. By design the instrument detected fluorescence specifically at the sodium D2 Fraunhofer line (5890 angstroms). The granules are used as a vehicle for airborne emplacement of poison to control fire ants in the eastern and southeastern United States. The granules are dropped with considerable precision but some targets are inevitably missed. It was hoped that the FLD could aid in detecting missed target areas. Test results showed that the granules are detectable by FLD but that the concentration must be too great to be practical with the present FLD. Possible methods for enhancement of response may include: (1) increasing dye concentration; (2) incorporating with the poisoned granules a second material to carry the dye alone; (3) use of a more strongly fluorescent substance (at 5890 A); (4) modifying the time interval after dyeing, or modifying the method of dyeing;(5) modifying the FLD for greater efficiency, increased field of view (FOV), or larger optics; or (6) experimenting with laser-stimulated fluorescence.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr70315","usgsCitation":"Stoertz, G.E., and Hemphill, W.R., 1970, Feasibility of surveying pesticide coverage with airborne fluorometer: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-315, ii, 21 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70315.","productDescription":"ii, 21 p.","numberOfPages":"24","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":150495,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0315/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":498402,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0315/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49fee4b07f02db5f6f35","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Stoertz, George Eimert","contributorId":99572,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Stoertz","given":"George","email":"","middleInitial":"Eimert","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":172312,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hemphill, William R.","contributorId":21970,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hemphill","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":172311,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":17277,"text":"ofr7020 - 1970 - Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":17277,"text":"ofr7020 - 1970 - Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska","indexId":"ofr7020","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"title":"Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":5684,"text":"pp707 - 1972 - Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska","indexId":"pp707","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"title":"Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska"},"id":1}],"supersededBy":{"id":5684,"text":"pp707 - 1972 - Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska","indexId":"pp707","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"title":"Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska"},"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:07:21","indexId":"ofr7020","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-20","title":"Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"United States Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey,","doi":"10.3133/ofr7020","usgsCitation":"Bath, G.D., Carr, W.J., Gard, L., and Quinlivan, W.D., 1970, Interpretation of an aeromagnetic survey of the Amchitka Island area, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-20, 87 p. ill., maps ;28 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr7020.","productDescription":"87 p. ill., maps ;28 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":106474,"rank":700,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_8490.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"},"description":"8490"},{"id":149865,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66d2e4","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Bath, G. D.","contributorId":71968,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bath","given":"G.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":175722,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Carr, W. J.","contributorId":9245,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Carr","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":175719,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Gard, L.M. Jr.","contributorId":14818,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gard","given":"L.M.","suffix":"Jr.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":175721,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Quinlivan, W. D.","contributorId":14398,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Quinlivan","given":"W.","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":175720,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4}]}} ,{"id":16321,"text":"ofr70331 - 1970 - Accoustical survey of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":16321,"text":"ofr70331 - 1970 - Accoustical survey of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine","indexId":"ofr70331","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"title":"Accoustical survey of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":67250,"text":"i716 - 1972 - Map showing echo-sounding survey (3.5 kHz) of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine","indexId":"i716","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"title":"Map showing echo-sounding survey (3.5 kHz) of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine"},"id":1}],"supersededBy":{"id":67250,"text":"i716 - 1972 - Map showing echo-sounding survey (3.5 kHz) of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine","indexId":"i716","publicationYear":"1972","noYear":false,"title":"Map showing echo-sounding survey (3.5 kHz) of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine"},"lastModifiedDate":"2026-01-07T16:35:16.140604","indexId":"ofr70331","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-331","title":"Accoustical survey of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, western Gulf of Maine","docAbstract":"The accompanying map shows the amount of acoustic penetration achieved in the sediments of the western Gulf of Maine using a 3.5 kHz echo sounding system and illustrates the pronounced control of topography on sediment distribution. Little or no sub-bottom penetration was observed in areas of sand and gravel on the major banks and ledges. Sonic penetration in the silt- and clay-filled basins was to the acoustic basement and in excess of 40 m where the acoustic basement was beyond instrument range. Stratification and unconformities were observed locally in the penetrable sediments. The fine-grained penetrable sediments in the major basins and near the coastline are inferred to originate from two sources: 1) glaciomarine deposits of mostly rock flour deposited during the retreat of the ice from the western Gulf of Maine, and 2) silt and clay winnowed from the banks and ledges and redeposited in the topographic lows during the Holocene lowering and later rise in sea level. The local unconformities, contacts between stratified and non-stratified sediments, and a shallow sub-bottom reflector observed in Cape Cod Bay may have been formed during the Holocene emergence and submergence of the western Gulf of Maine. Changes in sedimentation rates appear to be related to deglaciation, late-glacial submergence, and Holocene sea level changes.
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When properly impacted against a stiff material the device measures the amount of rebound of a spring-loaded hammer, with the rebound of the hammer being directly proportional to the strength of the material tested. Application of this instrument to rock, specifically water-saturated zeolitized tuff, is demonstrated through a set of correlation diagrams that relate Schmidt hammer rebound values, obtained from core samples and from the sites where samples were taken, to physical properties measured on rock samples in the laboratory. The properties include compressive strength, compressional and shear velocities, and dynamic and static Young's shear and bulk moduli. The correlation diagrams apply only to zeolitized tuff of the type found at the Nevada Test Site in its natural state (freshly excavated). These diagrams enable the user of the L-type Schmidt hammer to immediately obtain values of physical properties of such rocks in place, a convenience desirable where conventional sampling is not feasible or is impossible, and when results are required on short notice. The charts apply to L-type hammers that are calibrated to a nominal rebound value of 74. Calibration is made on a 35-pound-(16-kg-) test anvil with a steel-hardened test surface of Brinell hardness = 500 kg/mm2.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr70117","usgsCitation":"Ege, J.R., Miller, D.R., and Danilchik, W., 1970, Schmidt hammer test method for field determination of physical properties of zeolitized tuff: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-117, iv, 37 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr70117.","productDescription":"iv, 37 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":498187,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0117/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":147091,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0117/report-thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a0de4b07f02db5fd364","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ege, John R.","contributorId":69534,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ege","given":"John","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":167869,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Miller, Danny R.","contributorId":75536,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miller","given":"Danny","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":167871,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Danilchik, Walter","contributorId":70390,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Danilchik","given":"Walter","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":167870,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":11852,"text":"ofr7072 - 1970 - Analyses of rock and stream-sediment samples from the Sumdum A-4 quadrangle, Alaska","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-07-29T18:56:04.728629","indexId":"ofr7072","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"70-72","title":"Analyses of rock and stream-sediment samples from the Sumdum A-4 quadrangle, Alaska","docAbstract":"No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr7072","usgsCitation":"Clark, A.L., Brew, D.A., Grybeck, D., and Wehr, R., 1970, Analyses of rock and stream-sediment samples from the Sumdum A-4 quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-72, 97 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr7072.","productDescription":"97 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":493131,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_8554.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":39750,"rank":2,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0072/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":145287,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"scale":"63360","country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Sumdum A-4 quadrangle","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -133,\n 57.25\n ],\n [\n -133.333,\n 57.25\n ],\n [\n -133.333,\n 57\n ],\n [\n -133,\n 57\n ],\n [\n -133,\n 57.25\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad5e4b07f02db68375d","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Clark, Allen L.","contributorId":96258,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Clark","given":"Allen","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":163918,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Brew, D. 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","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/ofr7056","usgsCitation":"Carlson, P.R., and McCulloch, D.S., 1970, Bedrock-surface map of central San Francisco Bay: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 70-56, 1 Plate: 33.60 x 26.65 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr7056.","productDescription":"1 Plate: 33.60 x 26.65 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":493121,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_8545.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":80008,"rank":2,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1970/0056/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":172725,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","otherGeospatial":"central San Francisco Bay","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -122.536,\n 37.8786\n ],\n [\n -122.536,\n 37.767\n ],\n [\n -122.374,\n 37.767\n ],\n [\n -122.374,\n 37.8786\n ],\n [\n -122.536,\n 37.8786\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a54e4b07f02db62c417","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Carlson, Paul R.","contributorId":81469,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Carlson","given":"Paul","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":226149,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"McCulloch, David S. dmccullo@usgs.gov","contributorId":3100,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"McCulloch","given":"David","email":"dmccullo@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":226148,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":37681,"text":"tp43 - 1970 - An acute viral disease of channel catfish","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:09:55","indexId":"tp43","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":1,"text":"Federal Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":89,"text":"Technical Paper","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":1}},"seriesNumber":"43","title":"An acute viral disease of channel catfish","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service","usgsCitation":"Fijan, N.N., Wellborn, T.L., and Naftel, J.P., 1970, An acute viral disease of channel catfish: Technical Paper 43, 11 p. illus. 26 cm.","productDescription":"11 p. illus. 26 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":165290,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adbe4b07f02db685c2e","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Fijan, Nikola N.","contributorId":44419,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fijan","given":"Nikola","email":"","middleInitial":"N.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":218461,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Wellborn, Thomas L. 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