A systematic coverage of Nisqually Glacier by photographs taken from a network of stations on the ground was begun in 1942 to explore the value and limitations of such photographs as an aid in glacier study. Principles developed may be of value elsewhere, especially for the program 'Measurement of Glacier Variations on a World-Wide Basis' of the International Hydrological Decade.
\nNisqually Glacier in Mount Rainier National Park, Wash., covers 2.5 square miles (6.5 square kilometers) (1961) and extends from an altitude of about 14,300 feet (4,400 meters) near the top of Mount Rainier down to 4,700 feet (1,400 meters), in a horizontal distance of 4.1 miles (6.6 kilometers).
\nAnalyses were made of the annual photographs taken by the writer for 24 years from about 20 stations. A number of pictures taken sporadically from 1884 to 1941 by others were also available for use in the study. Where possible, the results obtained from photographs were compared with those from the available engineering surveys. Such detailed analysis of an extensive photographic coverage of a single glacier may be unique.
\nPhotographs illustrating the retreat and advance of the glacier's west ice margin in a reach extending for about a mile (1.6 kilometers) downstream from Wilson Glacier show that, by 1965, most of the ice thickness lost in that area between 1890 and 1944 had been recovered. Withering of the stagnant valley tongue down glacier from the nunatak is portrayed, as is its spectacular reactivation in the 1960's by a vigorous advance of fresh ice. Some of the visible characteristics of advancing and receding termini are noted.
\nAnnual values of the glacier's surface slope (5 to 10 degrees) at a cross profile were measured on photographs with respect to a projected vertical line identifiable in each picture. The results were found to average about 2 degrees less than those obtained from the 5-year topographic maps, but they are thought to be a little more accurate owing to lack of a sufficiently small contour interval on the maps for this special purpose.
\nYear-to-year variations in the surface slope and other characteristics from place to place along the glacier are portrayed by pictures to a degree not economically attainable by any other means.
\nAnnual changes in the glacier's thickness at two locations were determined from photographs and found to agree well with the results of stadia surveys.
\nA summary of conclusions reached in regard to other data or features of the glacier that were illustrated by annual photographs follows:
\n1. Toward the end of the ablation season, position of the annual snowline ranged between altitudes of about 5,800 and 7,300 feet (1,750 and 2,250 meters). The altitude limits within which firn was observed on the glacier were about 6,000 and 7,300 feet (1,850 and 2,250 meters).
\n2. Sources from which debris reaches the glacier are evident.
\n3. Medial moraines and other persistent patterns sometimes overlooked in the field are more noticeable in photographs. Ice-cored moraines and patterns of multiple lateral moraines are visible.
\n4. The extent, severity, and nature of crevassing in an area reflect the dynamic condition of the glacier at that location.
\n5. Erosion has caused certain bedrock areas or features on canyon walls to become unrecognizable within less than 15 years.
\n6. Effects of the 1932 and 1955 outburst floods on the stream channel and trees for a mile (1.6 kilometers) or so below the glacier are shown in comparison with ordinary, lesser floods. Visible effects include degradation, widening and changes in configuration of the channel, formation of small terraces, removal of vegetation from the flood plain, and the deposition of huge boulders on the stream banks and flood plain.
\nSome photographic procedures recommended for use in a program of this type are described in the section on \"Recommended Photographic Procedures.\"
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington","doi":"10.3133/pp631","usgsCitation":"Veatch, F.M., 1969, Analysis of a 24-Year photographic record of Nisqually glacier, Mount Rainier National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 631, Report: iv, 52 p.; 1 Plate: 17.01 x 30.38 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp631.","productDescription":"Report: iv, 52 p.; 1 Plate: 17.01 x 30.38 inches","numberOfPages":"56","costCenters":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":288144,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/pp631.jpg"},{"id":33909,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0631/pdf/plate_1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":33910,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0631/pdf/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":288143,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0631/"}],"country":"United States","state":"Washington","otherGeospatial":"Mount Rainier National Park","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -121.833333,46.75 ], [ -121.833333,46.916667 ], [ -121.666667,46.916667 ], [ -121.666667,46.75 ], [ -121.833333,46.75 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4ad0e4b07f02db680afe","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Veatch, Fred M.","contributorId":46517,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Veatch","given":"Fred","email":"","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":152792,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":5658,"text":"pp498D - 1969 - Chemical properties of ground water and their corrosion and encrustation effects on wells","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-03-15T13:09:06","indexId":"pp498D","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T12:00:00","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"498","chapter":"D","title":"Chemical properties of ground water and their corrosion and encrustation effects on wells","docAbstract":"Well waters in Egypt, Nigeria, and West Pakistan were studied for their chemical properties and corrosive or encrusting behavior. From the chemical composition of the waters, reaction states with reference to equilibrium were tested for 29 possible coexisting oxides, carbonates, sulfides, and elements. Of the 29 solids considered, only calcite, CaCO3, and ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3, showed any correlation with the corrosiveness of the waters to mild steel (iron metal). All 39 of the waters tested were out of equilibrium with iron metal, but those waters in equilibrium or supersaturated with both calcite and ferric hydroxide were the least corrosive. Supersaturation with other solid phases apparently was unrelated to corrosion.
A number of solids may form surface deposits in wells and lead to decreased yields by fouling well intakes (screens and gravel packs) or increasing friction losses in casings. Calcite, CaCO3; ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3; magnetite, Fe3O4; siderite, FeCO3; hausmannite, Mn304 (tetragonal); manganese spinel, Mn3O4 (isometric); three iron sulfides mackinawite, FeS (tetragonal); greigite, Fe3S4 (isometric); and smythite, Fe3S4 (rhombohedral)-copper hydroxide, Co(OH)2; and manganese hydroxide, Mn(OH)2, were all at least tentatively identified in the deposits sampled.
Of geochemical interest is the demonstration that simple stable equilibrium models fail in nearly every case to predict compositions of water yielded by the wells studied. Only one stable phase (calcite) was found to exhibit behavior approximately predictable from stable equilibrium considerations. No other stable phase was found to behave as would be predicted from equilibrium considerations. All the solids found to precipitate (except calcite) are metastable in that they are not the least soluble phases possible in the systems studied.
In terms of metastable equilibrium, siderite and ferric hydroxide behave approximately as would be predicted from equilibrium considerations, but both are metastable and the presence of neither would be anticipated if only the most stable phases were considered. The behaviors of none of the other solids would be predictable from either stable or metastable equilibrium considerations. An unanswered problem raised by the study reported here is how, or by what paths, truly stable phases form if first precipitates are generally metastable.
The utility of the findings in well design and operation is in no way impaired by the general lack of equilibrium. Conditions leading to either corrosion (which is related to lack of supersaturation with protective phases), or encrustation (supersaturation with phases that were found to precipitate), or both, apparently can be identified. The application of the methods described can be of great importance in developing unexploited ground-water resources in that certain practical problems can be identified before extensive well construction and unnecessary well failure.
","largerWorkTitle":"Hydrology of aquifer systems","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/pp498D","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Governments of Nigeria, the United Arab Republic, and West Pakistan, under the auspices of the United States Agency for International Development Studies of well waters from Nigeria, Egypt, and Pakistan","usgsCitation":"Barnes, I., and Clarke, F., 1969, Chemical properties of ground water and their corrosion and encrustation effects on wells: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 498, iv, p. D1-D58, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp498D.","productDescription":"iv, p. D1-D58","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":32162,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0498d/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"7.59 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":117859,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0498d/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Egypt, Nigeria, Pakistan","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"MultiPolygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[[34.9226,29.50133],[34.64174,29.09942],[34.42655,28.34399],[34.15451,27.8233],[33.92136,27.6487],[33.58811,27.97136],[33.13676,28.41765],[32.42323,29.85108],[32.32046,29.76043],[32.73482,28.70523],[33.34876,27.69989],[34.10455,26.14227],[34.47387,25.59856],[34.79507,25.03375],[35.69241,23.92671],[35.49372,23.75237],[35.52598,23.10244],[36.69069,22.20485],[36.86623,22],[32.9,22],[29.02,22],[25,22],[25,25.6825],[25,29.23865],[24.70007,30.04419],[24.95762,30.6616],[24.80287,31.08929],[25.16482,31.56915],[26.49533,31.58568],[27.45762,31.32126],[28.45048,31.02577],[28.91353,30.87005],[29.68342,31.18686],[30.09503,31.4734],[30.97693,31.55586],[31.68796,31.4296],[31.96041,30.9336],[32.19247,31.26034],[32.99392,31.02407],[33.7734,30.96746],[34.26544,31.21936],[34.9226,29.50133]]],[[[8.50029,4.77198],[7.46211,4.41211],[7.0826,4.46469],[6.69807,4.24059],[5.89817,4.26245],[5.3628,4.88797],[5.03357,5.6118],[4.32561,6.27065],[3.57418,6.2583],[2.6917,6.25882],[2.74906,7.87073],[2.72379,8.50685],[2.91231,9.13761],[3.22035,9.44415],[3.70544,10.06321],[3.60007,10.33219],[3.79711,10.73475],[3.57222,11.32794],[3.61118,11.66017],[3.68063,12.5529],[3.96728,12.95611],[4.10795,13.53122],[4.36834,13.74748],[5.44306,13.86592],[6.44543,13.49277],[6.82044,13.11509],[7.33075,13.09804],[7.80467,13.34353],[9.01493,12.82666],[9.52493,12.8511],[10.11481,13.27725],[10.70103,13.24692],[10.98959,13.38732],[11.5278,13.32898],[12.30207,13.03719],[13.08399,13.59615],[13.3187,13.55636],[13.99535,12.46157],[14.18134,12.48366],[14.57718,12.08536],[14.46819,11.90475],[14.41538,11.57237],[13.57295,10.79857],[13.30868,10.16036],[13.1676,9.64063],[12.95547,9.41777],[12.75367,8.71776],[12.21887,8.30582],[12.06395,7.79981],[11.83931,7.39704],[11.74577,6.98138],[11.05879,6.64443],[10.49738,7.05536],[10.11828,7.03877],[9.52271,6.45348],[9.23316,6.44449],[8.75753,5.47967],[8.50029,4.77198]]],[[[75.15803,37.13303],[75.8969,36.66681],[76.19285,35.8984],[77.83745,35.49401],[76.87172,34.65354],[75.75706,34.50492],[74.2402,34.74889],[73.74995,34.3177],[74.10429,33.44147],[74.45156,32.7649],[75.25864,32.27111],[74.40593,31.69264],[74.42138,30.97981],[73.45064,29.97641],[72.82375,28.96159],[71.77767,27.91318],[70.6165,27.9892],[69.51439,26.94097],[70.16893,26.49187],[70.28287,25.72223],[70.8447,25.2151],[71.04324,24.35652],[68.8426,24.35913],[68.17665,23.69197],[67.44367,23.94484],[67.14544,24.66361],[66.37283,25.42514],[64.53041,25.23704],[62.9057,25.21841],[61.49736,25.07824],[61.87419,26.23997],[63.31663,26.75653],[63.2339,27.21705],[62.75543,27.37892],[62.72783,28.25964],[61.77187,28.69933],[61.36931,29.30328],[60.87425,29.82924],[62.54986,29.31857],[63.55026,29.46833],[64.148,29.34082],[64.35042,29.56003],[65.04686,29.47218],[66.34647,29.88794],[66.38146,30.7389],[66.93889,31.30491],[67.68339,31.30315],[67.79269,31.58293],[68.55693,31.71331],[68.92668,31.62019],[69.31776,31.90141],[69.26252,32.50194],[69.68715,33.1055],[70.32359,33.35853],[69.93054,34.02012],[70.8818,33.98886],[71.15677,34.34891],[71.11502,34.73313],[71.61308,35.1532],[71.49877,35.65056],[71.26235,36.07439],[71.84629,36.50994],[72.92002,36.72001],[74.06755,36.83618],[74.57589,37.02084],[75.15803,37.13303]]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Egypt\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49e0e4b07f02db5e3daa","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Barnes, Ivan","contributorId":56619,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Barnes","given":"Ivan","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151379,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Clarke, Frank Eldridge","contributorId":107255,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Clarke","given":"Frank Eldridge","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":151380,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":6309,"text":"pp542G - 1969 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on various communities","indexId":"pp542G","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"chapter":"G","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on various communities"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":32676,"text":"pp542C - 1966 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Valdez, Alaska","indexId":"pp542C","publicationYear":"1966","noYear":false,"chapter":"C","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Valdez, Alaska"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":2},{"subject":{"id":32677,"text":"pp542D - 1966 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, in the Homer area, Alaska","indexId":"pp542D","publicationYear":"1966","noYear":false,"chapter":"D","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, in the Homer area, Alaska"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":3},{"subject":{"id":38844,"text":"pp542A - 1965 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Anchorage, Alaska","indexId":"pp542A","publicationYear":"1965","noYear":false,"chapter":"A","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Anchorage, Alaska"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":4},{"subject":{"id":38845,"text":"pp542B - 1965 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Whittier, Alaska","indexId":"pp542B","publicationYear":"1965","noYear":false,"chapter":"B","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Whittier, Alaska"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":5},{"subject":{"id":38846,"text":"pp542E - 1967 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Seward, Alaska","indexId":"pp542E","publicationYear":"1967","noYear":false,"chapter":"E","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, at Seward, Alaska"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":6},{"subject":{"id":38847,"text":"pp542F - 1967 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964 on the communities of Kodiak and nearby islands","indexId":"pp542F","publicationYear":"1967","noYear":false,"chapter":"F","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964 on the communities of Kodiak and nearby islands"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":7}],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-04-28T20:06:01.293026","indexId":"pp542","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T09:41:00","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"542","title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","docAbstract":"This is the second in a series of six reports that the U.S. Geological Survey published on the results of a comprehensive geologic study that began, as a reconnaissance survey, within 24 hours after the March 27, 1964, Magnitude 9.2 Great Alaska Earthquake and extended, as detailed investigations, through several field seasons. The 1964 Great Alaska earthquake was the largest earthquake in the U.S. since 1700. Professional Paper 542, in 7 parts, describes the effects of the earthquake on Alaskan communities.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","publisherLocation":"Washington, DC","doi":"10.3133/pp542","usgsCitation":"Hansen, W.R., Kachadoorian, R., Coulter, H., Migliaccio, R.R., Waller, R., Stanley, K.W., Lemke, R., Plafker, G., Eckel, E.B., and Mayo, L.R., 1969, The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 542, 7 Chapters, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp542.","productDescription":"7 Chapters","costCenters":[{"id":380,"text":"Menlo ParkCalif. Office-Earthquake Science Center","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":277615,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/pp542.gif"},{"id":277613,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0542/"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","city":"Anchorage, Homer, Kodiak, Seward, Valdez, Whittier","otherGeospatial":"Kenai Peninsula, Prince William Sound","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -168,\n 52\n ],\n [\n -130,\n 52\n ],\n [\n -130,\n 66.5\n ],\n [\n -168,\n 66.5\n ],\n [\n -168,\n 52\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53cd76c7e4b0b2908510b1cf","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hansen, Wallace R.","contributorId":90273,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hansen","given":"Wallace","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484011,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Kachadoorian, Reuben","contributorId":24336,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Kachadoorian","given":"Reuben","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484007,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Coulter, Henry W.","contributorId":56967,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Coulter","given":"Henry W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484009,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Migliaccio, Ralph R.","contributorId":22667,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Migliaccio","given":"Ralph","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484006,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Waller, Roger M.","contributorId":90353,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Waller","given":"Roger M.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484012,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Stanley, Kirk W.","contributorId":8900,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Stanley","given":"Kirk","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484005,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Lemke, Richard W.","contributorId":59409,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lemke","given":"Richard W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484010,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7},{"text":"Plafker, George","contributorId":3920,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Plafker","given":"George","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484004,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":8},{"text":"Eckel, Edwin B.","contributorId":26680,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Eckel","given":"Edwin","email":"","middleInitial":"B.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484008,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":9},{"text":"Mayo, Lawrence R.","contributorId":98344,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mayo","given":"Lawrence","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484013,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":10}]}} ,{"id":6309,"text":"pp542G - 1969 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on various communities","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":6309,"text":"pp542G - 1969 - Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on various communities","indexId":"pp542G","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"chapter":"G","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on various communities"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"id":1}],"isPartOf":{"id":70048211,"text":"pp542 - 1969 - The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities","indexId":"pp542","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"title":"The Alaska earthquake, March 27, 1964: Effects on communities"},"lastModifiedDate":"2022-04-28T19:46:13.571561","indexId":"pp542G","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T07:00:00","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"542","chapter":"G","title":"Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on various communities","docAbstract":"The 1964 earthquake caused wide-spread damage to inhabited places throughout more than 60,000 square miles of south-central Alaska. This report describes damage to all communities in the area except Anchorage, Whittier, Homer, Valdez, Seward, the communities of the Kodiak group of islands, and communities in the Copper River Basin; these were discussed in previous chapters of the Geological Survey's series of reports on the earthquake. At the communities discussed herein, damage resulted primarily from sea waves of diverse origins, displacements of the land relative to sea level, and seismic shaking. Waves took all of the 31 lives lost at those communities; physical damage was primarily from the waves and vertical displacements of the land relative to sea level.
\n\nDestructive waves of local origin struck during or immediately after the earthquake throughout much of Prince William Sound, the southern Kenai Peninsula, and the shores of Kenai Lake. In Prince William Sound, waves demolished all but one home at the native village of Chenega, destroyed homesites at Point Nowell and Anderson Bay, and caused varying amounts of damage to waterfront facilities at Sawmill Bay, Latouche, Port Oceanic, Port Nellie Juan, Perry Island, and western Port Valdez. The local waves, which ran up as high as 70 feet above tide level at Chenega and more than 170 feet in several uninhabited parts of the Sound, took nearly all of the lives lost by drowning at these communities. Destructive local waves that devastated shores of Anderson Bay and adjacent parts of western Port Valdez probably were generated primarily by massive submarine slides of glacial and fluvioglacial deposits ; the origin of the waves that caused damage at most of the other communities and at extensive uninhabited segments of shoreline is not known. At these places the most probable generative mechanisms are: unidentified submarine slides of unconsolidated deposits, and (or) the horizontal tectonic displacements, of 20 to more than 60 feet, that occurred in the Prince William Sound region during the earthquake.
\n\nA train of long-period seismic sea waves that began about 20 minutes after the start of the earthquake inundated shores along the Gulf of Alaska coast to a maximum height of 35 feet above tide level. At the communities described, they virtually destroyed two logging camps at Whidbey Bay and Puget Bay on the south coast of the Kenai Peninsula, caused moderate damage to boat harbors and docks at Seldovia and Cordova, floated away some beach cabins in the Cordova area, and drowned two people, one at Point Whitshed near Cordora and one at the Cape Saint Elias Light Station. The seismic sea waves were generated by regional tectonic uplift of the sea floor on the Continental Shelf.
\n\nVertical tectonic displacements of the land relative to sea level that accompanied the earthquake affected virtually all the coastal communities. Tectonic subsidence of 5 to 6 feet, augmented locally by surficial subsidence of unconsolidated deposits required either the relocation or raising of structures at Portage, Girdwood, and Hope on Turnagain Arm. Shoreline submergence resulting from about 3½ feet of tectonic subsidence at Seldovia necessitated raising all waterfront facilities and the airstrip above the level of high tides. On the other hand, tectonic uplift of the land in the Prince Williams Sound region required deepening of the small-boat harbors at Cordora and Tatitlek, dredging of the waterways in the Cordova area, and lengthening of some docks or piers at Cordova, the Cape Hinchinbrook Light Station, and in Sawmill Bay.
\n\nSignificant structural damage from direct seismic shaking was largely confined to fluid containers and a pier facility near Kenai. Indirect damage from fissuring and differential settling of foundation mterials in the vicinity of the Cordova airfield mused damage to a building, underground utilities, an airfield fill, and the highway. Minor amounts of direct and indirect damage from seismic vibrations were sustained by most of the communities situated on unconsolidated deposits as far east as Yakutat, north to Fairbanks, and west to King Salmon. Except for a few cracked or toppled chimney, all the damage from shaking was confined to areas of thick, unconsolidated deposits. Foundation damage was almost entirely restricted to water-saturated unconsolidated deposits which, when liquefied by seismic shaking, could spread laterally toward free faces and (or) settle differentially through compaction.
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