A review of the literature indicates that a reasonable estimate of the composition of the earth's core is iron with Ni0–5, Si10–25 (wt.%). Thermodynamic calculations and comparison of chondritic with terrestrial abundances indicate that 1 wt.% each of Mn, P, and Cr might also be present. A core of this composition was probably in chemical equilibrium with the mantle at the time of core formation because:
(1) The reactions 2Fe + SiO2 = 2FeO + Si and Fe2SiO4 + 2Ni = Ni2SiO4 + 2Fe proceed further to the right at the T and P values prevailing at the core-mantle boundary than at lower temperatures, thus supporting the presence of Si in the core and the relatively high Ni concentration of the mantle;
(2) the
(3) the apparent partitioning of Au and similar elements between the core and the mantle is close to that of pallasites.
The anomalously high abundance of Cu in the upper mantle can be explained by enrichment through partial melting. Volcanic gases are not likely to represent the composition of volatile elements at the core-mantle boundary, and hence cannot be regarded as valid criteria of disequilibrium at the boundary. Available data on reaction kinetics suggest that a disequilibrium state would be unlikely during core formation.
Deep sea pillow basalts dredged from the ocean floor show that vesicularity changes with composition as well as with depth. Alkalic basalts are more vesicular than tholeiitic basalts erupted at the same depth. The vesicularity data, when related to experimentally determined solubility of water in basalt, indicate that K-poor oceanic tholeiites originally contained about 0.25 percent water, Hawaiian tholeiites of intermediate K-content, about 0.5 percent water, and alkali-rich basalts, about 0.9 percent water. Analyses of fresh basalt pillows show a systematic increase of H2O+ as the rocks become more alkalic. K-poor oceanic tholeiites contain 0.06–0.42 percent H2O+, Hawaiian tholeiites, 0.31–0.60 percent H2O+, and alkali rich basalts 0.49–0.98 percent H2O+. The contents of K2O, P2O5, F, and Cl increase directly with an increase in H2O+ content such that at 1.0 weight percent H2O+, K2O is 1.58 percent, P2O5 is 0.55 percent, F is 0.07 percent, and Cl is 0.1 percent. The measured weight percent of deuterium on the rim of one Hawaiian pillow is −6.0 (relative to SMOW); this value, which is similar to other indications of magmatic water, suggests that no appreciable sea water was absorbed by the pillow during or subsequent to eruption on the ocean floor.
Concentrations of volatile constituents in the alkali basalt melts relative to tholeiitic melts can be explained by varying degrees of partial melting of mantle material or by fractional crystallization of a magma batch.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer","doi":"10.1007/BF00388949","issn":"00107999","usgsCitation":"Moore, J., 1970, Water content of basalt erupted on the ocean floor: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 28, no. 4, p. 272-279, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00388949.","productDescription":"8 p.","startPage":"272","endPage":"279","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":203746,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"28","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e478ee4b07f02db489f4f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Moore, J.G.","contributorId":67496,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"J.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":346801,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70009840,"text":"70009840 - 1970 - Submarine basalt from the Revillagigedo Islands region, Mexico","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-04-16T15:03:40.797211","indexId":"70009840","displayToPublicDate":"2003-01-04T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2667,"text":"Marine Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Submarine basalt from the Revillagigedo Islands region, Mexico","docAbstract":"Ocean-floor dredging and submarine photography in the Revillagigedo region off the west coast of Mexico reveal that the dominant exposed rock of the submarine part of the large island-forming volcanoes (Roca Partida and San Benedicto) is a uniform alkali pillow basalt; more siliceous rocks are exposed on the upper, subaerial parts of the volcanoes. Basalts dredged from smaller seamounts along the Clarion fracture zone south of the Revillagigedo Islands are tholeiitic pillow basalts. Pillows of alkali basalts are more vesicular than Hawaiian tholeiitic pillows collected from the same depths. This difference probably reflects a higher original volatile content of the alkali basalts.
Manganese-iron oxide nodules common in several dredge hauls generally contain nucleii of rhyolitic pumice or basalt pillow fragments. The pumice floated to its present site from subaerial eruptions, became waterlogged and sank, and was then coated with manganese-iron oxides. The thickness of palagonite rinds on the glassy pillow fragments is proportional to the thickness of manganese-iron oxide layers, and both are a measure of the age of the nodule. Both oldest basalts (10–100 m.y.) and youngest (less than 1 m.y.) are along the Clarion fracture zone, whereas basalts from Roca Partida and San Benedicto volcanoes are of intermediate age.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0025-3227(70)90022-8","issn":"00253227","usgsCitation":"Moore, J., 1970, Submarine basalt from the Revillagigedo Islands region, Mexico: Marine Geology, v. 9, no. 5, p. 331-345, https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(70)90022-8.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"331","endPage":"345","numberOfPages":"15","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":218761,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Mexico","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -111.0498046875,\n 22.268764039073968\n ],\n [\n -105.2490234375,\n 22.268764039073968\n ],\n [\n -105.2490234375,\n 24.84656534821976\n ],\n [\n -111.0498046875,\n 24.84656534821976\n ],\n [\n -111.0498046875,\n 22.268764039073968\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"9","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505b9d1fe4b08c986b31d65a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Moore, J.G.","contributorId":67496,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"J.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357264,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70226505,"text":"70226505 - 1970 - Use of Ar36 to Evaluate the Incorporation of Air by Ash Flows","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-11-22T14:10:01.572212","indexId":"70226505","displayToPublicDate":"1970-11-01T07:58:38","publicationYear":"1970","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5935,"text":"Bulletin of the Geological Society of America","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"displayTitle":"Use of Ar36 to Evaluate the Incorporation of Air by Ash Flows","title":"Use of Ar36 to Evaluate the Incorporation of Air by Ash Flows","docAbstract":"The Ar36 content of densely welded glasses from ash-flow units provides a means by which the amount of air entrapped and subsequently resorbed by the glasses during compaction and welding may be calculated. The amount of air measured in glasses from nine upper Tertiary ash-flow sheets in the western United States ranges from 0.033 to 13 ppm; median is about 1 ppm. These values are very small compared with the total amounts of volatiles which probably were incorporated during welding. The data strongly suggest that large volumes of air are not incorporated by ash flows during their eruption and lateral movement.
Under favorable conditions the chemistry of hot springs may give reliable indications of subsurface temperatures and circulation patterns. These chemical indicators can be classified by the type of process involved:
| Indicator | Dominant Process |
| The silica geothermometer | Solution-precipitation |
| Alkali ratios | Ion exchange |
| Cl/(HCO3 + CO3) ratio | Rock alteration by dissolved |
| CO2 | |
| Relative concentration of | Partitioning owing to subsur- |
| volatiles in spring water | face boning |
All these indicators have certain limitations. The silica geothermometer gives results independent of the local mineral suite and gas partial pressures, but may be affected by dilution. Alkali ratios are strongly affected by the local mineral suite and the formation of complex ions. Carbonate-chloride ratios are strongly affected by subsurface PCO2. The relative concentration of volatiles can be very misleading in high-pressure liquid systems.
In Yellowstone National Park most thermal waters issue from hot, shallow aquifers with pressures in excess of hydrostatic by 2 to 6 bars and with large flows (the flow of hot spring water from the Park is greater than 4000 liters per second). These conditions should be ideal for the use of chemical indicators to estimate aquifer temperatures. In five drill holes aquifer temperatures were within 2°C of that predicted from the silica content of nearby hot springs; the temperature level off at a lower value than predicted in only one hole, and in four other holes drilling was terminated before the predicted aquifer temperature was reached.
The temperature-Na/K ratio relationship does not follow any published experimental or empirical curve for water-feldspar or water-clay reactions. We suspect that ion exchange reactions involving zeolites in the Yellowstone rocks result in higher Na/K ratios at given temperatures than result from feldspar or clay reactions. Comparison of SiO2 and Cl/(HCO3 + CO3) suggest that because of higher subsurface PCO2 in Upper Geyser Basin a given Cl/(HCO3 + CO3) ratio there means a higher temperature than in Lower Geyser Basin. No correlation was found in Yellowstone Park between the subsurface regions of highest temperature and the relative concentration of volatile components such as boron and ammonia.
The genesis of granitic igneous pegmatites is here considered in terms of a model conceived from results of field and laboratory studies and subsequently tested by means of experimental investigations. This model emphasizes the roles of water (and/or other relatively volatile substances), both as a dissolved constituent in granitic magmas and as the dominant constituent of a separate fluid phase that is in the supercritical state under most conditions of pegmatite formation. Pegmatite magma, as distinguished by a content of dissolved water that is high relative to the limit of solubility under existing confining pressure, can be formed either through partial melting of crustal materials or as rest-liquid in a cooling igneous body yielding dominantly anhydrous crystalline phases. Such granitic magma can be expected to consolidate according to the following three-fold sequence: 1. Crystallization from hydrous silicate melt, yielding anhydrous solid phases with or without OH-bearing phases. The product is characterized by normal phaneritic textures that generafly are coarse grained. It has been termed pegmatite in some occurrences, and granite in others. 2. Crystallization concomitantly from silicate melt and from a coexisting exsolved aqueous fluid of considerably lower viscosity, yielding giant-textured pegmatite along with much finer-grained, even aplitic, mineral aggregates. Segregation of these products can vary enormously in scale and degree. Partitioning of constituents between melt and aqueous fluid, rapid diffusion of constituents through the aqueous phase, and gravitational rising of this fluid through the system contribute to formation of pods, zones, and other rock units of unusual composition and texture. 3. Crystallization in the absence of silicate melt, yielding a wide variety of late-stage products. These include so-called \"pocket minerals\" and numerous mineral aggregates formed through exchanges of material among aqueous fluid and earlier-formed crystal-line phases. Development of pegmatite bodies can begin with either Step 1 or Step 2, but it is suggested that the processes involved in Step 2 are essential to the formation of all true pegmatites of igneous origin. The appearance of a second fluid phase, in general a supercritical aqueous fluid derived from the crystallizing melt, is regarded as the decisive event; it is promptly followed by fundamental changes in distribution and texture of the solid phases being formed. The processes can operate effectively in a fully closed system, and they also can modify the surrounding rocks if the system is open at any stage. Step 1 can include reactions between magma and earlier-formed crystals, but far more rapid and extensive exchanges of materials are subsequently effected by processes included in Steps 2 and 3; indeed, such exchanges also can account satisfactorily for pegmatites of metamorphic origin. Crystallization of most granitic magmas in the absence of a separate aqueous phase probably would begin within the temperature range 1,300°-650 ° C, the specific liquidus temperature depending mainly upon the amounts of volatile constituents held in solution at the time. This compositional factor also would be important in controlling the stage of crystallization-late, intermediate, or early-at which a separate aqueous fluid would make its appearance. Depending upon confining pressure as dictated by geologic conditions for a given system, the stage in crystallization represented by the presence of both silicate melt and aqueous fluid could begin within about the same temperature range of 1.300°-650 ° C. Exhaustion of the melt could occur within range extending downward to temperatures of 600C or even somewhat lower. Textural and structural features appear to be the most reliable indicators of the stages and fundamental processes involved in crystallization of both natural and synthetic pegmatites. The contrasting processes of crystallization from one fluid and from more than one fluid can operate over such broad P-T-X ranges that simple genetic pegmatite classifications based largely upon \"key minerals,\" presumed temperature or pressure intervals, or the presence or absence of supercritical conditions appear to be somewhat unrealistic. © 1969 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists ","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.64.8.843","issn":"03610128","usgsCitation":"Jahns, R.H., and Burnham, C., 1969, Experimental studies of pegmatite genesis: I. A model for the derivation and crystallization of granitic pegmatites: Economic Geology, v. 64, no. 8, p. 843-864, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.64.8.843.","productDescription":"22 p. ","startPage":"843","endPage":"864","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":369688,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"64","issue":"8","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1969-12-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Jahns, R. H.","contributorId":97961,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Jahns","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":776248,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Burnham, C.W.","contributorId":220937,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Burnham","given":"C.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":776249,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70224275,"text":"70224275 - 1969 - The Cloudy Pass epizonal batholith and associated subvolcanic rocks","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-09-17T16:43:08.504409","indexId":"70224275","displayToPublicDate":"1969-01-01T09:58:42","publicationYear":"1969","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":5,"text":"Book chapter"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":24,"text":"Book Chapter"},"seriesTitle":{"id":5614,"text":"Special Papers of the Geological Society of America","printIssn":"0072-1077","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":24}},"title":"The Cloudy Pass epizonal batholith and associated subvolcanic rocks","docAbstract":"The Cloudy Pass batholith, one of several small epizonal Tertiary batholiths in the Northern Cascade Mountains, discordantly intrudes metamorphic rocks of pre-Late Cretaceous age. The batholith is remarkable for its chilled borders, associated porphyry plugs, and intrusive breccias. The main body of the batholith consists largely of labradorite granodiorite.
Part of the northeast side of the batholith is bordered by a complex more than half a mile thick of chilled rocks of Hart Lake that consists of separately injected, contrasting layers of porphyry. At lower levels these are an early, outer layer of dacite; a younger, inner layer of dacite and labradorite-by-townite andesite; and a middle, still younger layer of autobreccia compositionally similar to the inner layer. Contacts between layers are complex and consist at lower levels of intermixed zones, suggesting that at these levels the early rocks were still molten when injected by the later rocks. At higher levels the younger rocks split into separate dikes, and contacts between younger and older rocks are sharp, suggesting that at these levels the older rocks had solidified before they were intruded by the younger rocks. The border complex is thought to have been cooled largely by expanding gases which were released from the batholith and which escaped to the surface through this zone. The contact between the labradorite granodiorite and the inner layer is gradational locally, but in most places the granodiorite intrudes the inner layer, and the contact is sharp. Where the middle and inner layers of the complex are absent, the contact of granodiorite and dacite of the outer layer is gradational.
Porphyry plugs which puncture the adjacent metamorphic rocks, although more siliceous than the rocks of the complex, consist largely of dacite and are petrographically indistinguishable from dacite of the complex.
Intrusive breccias are of two types: one consists of rounded fragments of batholithic rocks in a “marble cake” mixture of calcic quartz diorite and white quartz monzonite and is confined to the core of the batholith; the other consists of fragments of batholithic rocks and gneiss in a matrix of varying proportions of igneous and finely comminuted materials and is confined to the porphyry plugs and gneiss. This second type seems to have been injected explosively, probably accompanying “second boiling” of the labradorite granodiorite.
Plagioclases range from high- to low-temperature varieties. The transitional and high-temperature plagioclases are confined to the deuterically least-altered parts of the chilled margins. The low-temperature plagioclase occurs in the batholithic core and the complex of Hart Lake, and is thought to have inverted from an original high-temperature form because of long-continued existence at elevated, although subsolidus, temperatures, or because of the action of volatile constituents, or both.
The batholith seems to have made room for itself by lifting its roof, and the complex of Hart Lake developed along the upfaulted eastern side.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"The Cloudy Pass epizonal batholith and associated subvolcanic rocks","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":15,"text":"Monograph"},"language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/SPE116-p1","usgsCitation":"Cater, F., 1969, The Cloudy Pass epizonal batholith and associated subvolcanic rocks, chap. of The Cloudy Pass epizonal batholith and associated subvolcanic rocks: Special Papers of the Geological Society of America, v. 116, p. 1-52, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE116-p1.","productDescription":"52 p.","startPage":"1","endPage":"52","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":389392,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Washington","county":"Chelan County, Snohomish County","otherGeospatial":"Cascade Mountains, Hart Lake","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -121.234130859375,\n 47.68388118858139\n ],\n [\n -119.9981689453125,\n 47.68388118858139\n ],\n [\n -119.9981689453125,\n 48.3416461723746\n ],\n [\n -121.234130859375,\n 48.3416461723746\n ],\n [\n -121.234130859375,\n 47.68388118858139\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"116","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1969-01-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Cater, Fred W.","contributorId":26295,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cater","given":"Fred W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":823432,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":13513,"text":"ofr6897 - 1968 - The geologic classification of the meteorites","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:06:38","indexId":"ofr6897","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1968","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"68-97","title":"The geologic classification of the meteorites","docAbstract":"The meteorite classes of Prior and Mason are assigned to three proposed genetic groups on the basis of a combination of compositional, mineralogical, and elemental characteristics: l) the calcium-poor, volatile-rich carbonaceous chondrites and achondrites; 2) the calcium-poor, volatile-poor chondrites (enstatite, bronzite, hypersthene, and pigeonite), achondrites (enstatite, hypersthene, and pigeonite), stonyirons (pallasites, siderophyre), and irons; and, 3) the calcium-rich (basaltic) achondrites. Chondrites are correlated with calcium-poor achondrites and the silicate phase of the pallasitic meteorites on Fe contents of olivine and pyroxene; and with metal of the stony-irons and irons on the basis of trace elements (Ga and Ge). Transitions in structure and texture between the chondrites and achondrites are recognized. The Van Schmus-Wood chemical-petrologic classification of the chondrites has been modified and expanded to a mineralogic-petrologic classification of the chondrites and calcium-poor achondrites. \r\n\r\nChondrites apparently are the first rocks of the solar system. Paragenetic and textural relations in the Murray carbonaceous chondrite shed new light on the manner of accretion, and on the character of dispersed solid materials ('dust', and chondrules and metal) that existed in the solar system before accretion. \r\n\r\nTwo pre-accretionary mineral assemblages (components) are recognized in the carbonaceous chondrites and in the unequilibrated volatile-poor chondrites. They are: 1) a 'low temperature' water-, rare gas-, and carbon-bearing component; and, 2) a high temperature anhydrous silicate and metal component. Paragenetic relations indicate that component 2 materials predate chondrite formation. An accretionary assemblage (component 3) also is recognized in the carbonaceous chondrites and in the unequilibrated volatile-poor chondrites. Component 3 consists of very fine grains of olivine and pyroxene, which occur as pervasive disseminations, as small irregular aggregates of grains, and as large subround to round, finely granular accretional chondrules. \r\n\r\nEvidence in Murray indicates that component 3 silicates precipitated abruptly and at low pressures, possibly from a high temperature gas, in an environment that contained dispersed component 1 and 2 materials. All component 3 aggregates in Murray contain component 1 material, most commonly as flakes, and locally as tiny granules and larger spherules, some of which are hollow and some of which were broken prior to their mechanical incorporation in accretionary chondrules. Accretion may have occurred as ices associated with dispersed water-bearing component 1 materials temporarily melted during the precipitation of component 3 silicates, and then abruptly refroze to form an icy cementing material. Group 1 materials may be cometary, and group 2 materials may be asteroidal. Schematic models are proposed. \r\n\r\nEvidence is reviewed for the lunar origin of the pyroxeneplagioclase achondrites. On the basis of natural remanent magnetism, it is suggested that the very scarce diopside-olivine achondrites may be samples from Mars. A classification of the meteorite breccias, including the calcium-poor and calcium-rich mesosiderites, and irons that contain silicate fragments, is proposed. A fragmentation history of the meteorites is outlined on the basis of evidence in the polymict breccias, and from gas retention ages in stones and exposure ages in irons. Cometal impacts appear to have caused the initial fragmentation, stud possibly the perturbation of orbits, of two inferred asteroidal bodies (enstatite and bronzite), one and possibly both events occurring before 2000 m.y. ago. Several impacts apparently occurred on the inferred hypersthene body in the interval 1000 to 2000 m.y. ago. \r\n\r\nMajor breakups of the three bodies apparently occurred as the result of interasteroidal collisions at about 900 m.y. ago, and 600 to 700 m.y. ago. The breakups were followed by a number of fr","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr6897","usgsCitation":"Elston, D.P., 1968, The geologic classification of the meteorites: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 68-97, 271 p. ill. (some folded, some col.) ;30 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr6897.","productDescription":"271 p. ill. (some folded, some col.) ;30 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":144632,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":41989,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-1.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41990,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-2.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41991,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-3.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41992,"rank":403,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-4.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41993,"rank":404,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-5.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41994,"rank":405,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-6.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41995,"rank":406,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/plate-7.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":41996,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0097/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a9ae4b07f02db65d9f5","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Elston, Donald Parker","contributorId":38150,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Elston","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"Parker","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":167926,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70011498,"text":"70011498 - 1968 - Mineralogy as a function of depth in the prehistoric Makaopuhi tholeiitic lava lake, Hawaii","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-29T16:49:47.663291","indexId":"70011498","displayToPublicDate":"1968-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1968","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1336,"text":"Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Mineralogy as a function of depth in the prehistoric Makaopuhi tholeiitic lava lake, Hawaii","docAbstract":"The electron probe X-ray microanalyzer has been used to determine the compositional variability of the groundmass minerals and glass in 10 specimens from a complete 225-foot section of the prehistoric tholeiitic lava lake of Makaopuhi Crater, Hawaii. The order of beginning of crystallization was: (1) chromite, (2) olivine, (3) augite, (4) plagioclase, (5) pigeonite, (6) iron-titanium oxides and orthopyroxene, (7) alkali feldspar and apatite, and (8) glass.
Although the lake is chemically tholeiitic throughout, the occurrence of ferromagnesian minerals is as though there were a gradation from alkali olivine basalt in the upper chill downwards to olivine tholeiite. Groundmass olivine decreases downwards and disappears at about 20 feet. Pigeonite is absent in the uppermost 5±2 feet, then increases in amount down to 20 feet, below which augite and pigeonite coexist in constant 2∶1 proportions. Strong zoning and metastable compositions characterize the pyroxenes of the chilled zones, but these features gradually disappear towards the interior of the lake to give way to equilibrium pyroxenes. Relatively homogeneous poikilitic orthopyroxene (≈ Ca4Mg70Fe26) occurs in the olivine cumulate zone, having formed partly at the expense of pre-existing olivine, augite, and pigeonite (≈ Ca8Mg66Fe26). The growth of orthopyroxene is believed to have been facilitated by the slower cooling rate and higher volatile pressure at depth, and by the rise in Mg/Fe ratio of the liquid due to the partial dissolution of settled olivine.
Unlike olivine and pyroxene, feldspar is least zoned in the upper and lower chilled regions. The greatest range of compositional zoning in feldspar occurs at 160 to 190 feet, where it extends continuously from Or1.0Ab22An77 to Or64Ab33An3. The feldspar fractionation trend in the An-Ab-Or triangle gradually shifts with depth toward more “equilibrium” trends, even though the zoning becomes more extreme. The variation with depth in the initial (core) composition of the plagioclase suggests the influence of either slow nucleation and growth (undercooling) or slow diffusion in the liquid, relative to the rate of cooling.
Idiomorphic opaque inclusions in olivine phenocrysts are chrome-spinels showing continuous variation from 60 percent chromite to 85 percent ulvospinel and to magnetite-rich spinel. A pre-eruption trend of increasing Al with decreasing Cr can be recognized in chromites from the upper chill. Most of the inclusions show a trend of falling Cr and Al, toward an ulvospinelmagnetite solid solution which is progressively poorer in Usp with depth. This trend was produced by solid state alteration of the chromite inclusions during cooling in the lava lake. Ilmenite (average Ilm91Hm9) coexists with variably oxidized titaniferous magnetite in the basalt groundmass. Estimated oxygen fugacities agree well with other independent determinations in tholeiitic basalt. No sulfide phase has been detected.
Fractional crystallization produced a groundmass glass of granitic composition. Average, in percent, is: SiO2, 75.5; Al2O3, 12.5; K2O, 5.7; Na2O, 3.1; CaO, 0.3; MgO, 0.05; total FeO, 1.2; and TiO2, 0.8. Normative Or> Ab. Minor changes in glass composition with depth are consistent with a greater approach towards the granite minimum. Incipient devitrification precluded reliable analysis of glass from the lower half of the section. The SiO2-phase associated with devitrification contains alkalis and Al and is believed to be cristobalite. Needle-like apatite crystals in the groundmass glass are Siand Fe-bearing fluorapatites containing appreciable rare earths (predominantly Ce) and variable Cl.
The grain-size and maximum An content of the cores of plagioclase grains were controlled by cooling rate and are at a maximum at the center of the section. The most homogeneous pyroxene (and olivine, MOORE and EVANS, 1967), most equilibrium pyroxene trends, most abundant alkali feldspar, and most equilibrium feldspar trends are found at 160 to 190 feet, which is appreciably below that part of the lake which was slowest to crystallize. Volatile pressure, increasing with depth, possibly controlled the degree of attainment of equilibrium more than cooling rate.
Since they are dependent on cooling history, some of the modal criteria commonly used for recognizing basalt types, such as the absence of Ca-poor pyroxene, presence of groundmass olivine, and the presence of alkali feldspar, should be applied with caution. Petrographic comparison of basalts from one flow, volcano, or province, with another, should recognize the possible variations due to cooling history alone.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer","doi":"10.1007/BF00373204","issn":"00107999","usgsCitation":"Evans, B., and Moore, J., 1968, Mineralogy as a function of depth in the prehistoric Makaopuhi tholeiitic lava lake, Hawaii: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 17, no. 2, p. 85-115, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00373204.","productDescription":"31 p.","startPage":"85","endPage":"115","numberOfPages":"31","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":221175,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United 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\"}}]}","volume":"17","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a5acce4b0c8380cd6f134","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Evans, B.W.","contributorId":86896,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Evans","given":"B.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":361266,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Moore, J.G.","contributorId":67496,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Moore","given":"J.G.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":361265,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":2070,"text":"wsp1817A - 1966 - Organic acids in naturally colored surface waters","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:05:23","indexId":"wsp1817A","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1966","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":341,"text":"Water Supply Paper","code":"WSP","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1817","chapter":"A","title":"Organic acids in naturally colored surface waters","docAbstract":"Most of the organic matter in naturally colored surface waters consists of a mixture of carboxylic acids or salts of these acids. Many of the acids color the water yellow to brown; however, not all of the acids are colored. These acids range from simple to complex, but predominantly they are nonvolatile polymeric carboxylic acids. \r\n\r\nThe organic acids were recovered from the water by two techniques: continuous liquid-liquid extraction with n-butanol and vacuum evaporation at 50?C (centigrade). The isolated acids were studied by techniques of gas, paper, and column chromatography and infrared spectroscopy. \r\n\r\nAbout 10 percent of the acids recovered were volatile or could be made volatile for gas chromatographic analysis. Approximately 30 of these carboxylic acids were isolated, and 13 of them were individually identified. The predominant part of the total acids could not be made volatile for gas chromatographic analysis. Infrared examination of many column chromatographic fractions indicated that these nonvolatile substances are primarily polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids having aromatic and olefinic unsaturation. The evidence suggests that some of these acids result from polymerization in aqueous solution. Elemental analysis of the sodium fusion products disclosed the absence of nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. G.P.O,","doi":"10.3133/wsp1817A","usgsCitation":"Lamar, W.L., and Goerlitz, D., 1966, Organic acids in naturally colored surface waters: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1817, iii, 17 p. :ill. ;23 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1817A.","productDescription":"iii, 17 p. :ill. ;23 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":138439,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1817a/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":27623,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1817a/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e48cde4b07f02db544b7a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lamar, William L.","contributorId":15592,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lamar","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144634,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Goerlitz, D.F.","contributorId":8445,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Goerlitz","given":"D.F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":144633,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70010782,"text":"70010782 - 1965 - Solution of rocks and refractory minerals by acids at high temperatures and pressures. Determination of silica after decomposition with hydrofluoric acid","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-24T00:11:38.14032","indexId":"70010782","displayToPublicDate":"1965-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1965","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":760,"text":"Analytica Chimica Acta","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Solution of rocks and refractory minerals by acids at high temperatures and pressures. Determination of silica after decomposition with hydrofluoric acid","docAbstract":"A modified Morey bomb was designed which contains a removable nichromecased 3.5-ml platinium crucible. This bomb is particularly useful for decompositions of refractory samples for micro- and semimicro-analysis. Temperatures of 400–450° and pressures estimated as great as 6000 p.s.i. were maintained in the bomb for periods as long as 24 h. Complete decompositions of rocks, garnet, beryl, chrysoberyl, phenacite, sapphirine, and kyanite were obtained with hydrofluoric acid or a mixture of hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids; the decomposition of chrome refractory was made with hydrochloric acid. Aluminum-rich samples formed difficultly soluble aluminum fluoride precipitates. Because no volatilization losses occur, silica can be determined on sample solutions by a molybdenum-blue procedure using aluminum(III) to complex interfering fluoride.
A well drilled for geothermal power near Salton Sea in Imperial Valley, Calif., is 5,232 feet deep; it is the deepest well in the world (1962) in a high-temperature hot spring area. In the lower half of the hole temperatures are too high to measure with available equipment, but are at loast 270°C, and may be as much as 370°C. For comparison, maximum temperature heretofore reported at depth (1962) for hot spring areas is 295°C.
The well taps a very saline brine of Na-Ca-K-Cl type (about 185,000 ppm Cl) with exceptionally high potassium, and with the highest content of minor alkali elements known for natural waters; Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Ag, and some other metals are also exceptionally high. This brine may be connate, but present evidence favors a source in the magma chamber at depth that supplied late Quaternary rhyolite domes of the area. If the latter is correct, the brine is an undiluted magmatic water that is residual from the separation of a more volatile phase high in CO2, H2S, and with some alkali halides. Elsewhere, the hypothesized volatile phase may account for near-surface hot spring activity of most thermal areas of volcanic association. The residual brine of high salinity may ordinarily remain relatively deep in the volcanic systems because of high specific gravity and low content of volatiles, seldom appearing at the surface except in a greatly diluted form.
The hot springs of Arima, Japan, may be a rare example of this type of magmatic water discharging at the surface in moderate concentration (Cl as much as 42,000 ppm). Independent evidence from fluid inclusions in minerals of high-temperature base-metal deposits also favors the existence of magmatic water high in Na, Ca, and Cl, and low in CO2 and other volatile components.
During a three-month production test several tons of material precipitated in the horizontal discharge pipe from the well. Amorphous silica with iron and manganese, and bornite are the dominant recognized components. This material contains the astonishingly high contents of about 20 percent copper, 2 percent silver, and notable sulfur, arsenic, bismuth, lead, antimony, and some other minor elements. Total quantities of all elements in the original whole brine are not yet known, but calculated amounts corresponding to 1 to 3 ppm of copper and 0.1 to 0.3 ppm of silver were precipitated from the brine to form the pipe deposits. The brine, therefore, may be man’s first sample of an « active » ore solution.
Equally fascinating to many geologists is the possibility that in the lower part of the hole temperatures are so high and pressures are sufficient for young sedimentary rocks to be undergoing transformation into rocks with mineral assemblages of the greenschist facies of metamorphism. Drill cores from 4,400 to 5,000 feet in depth contain chlorite, albite, K-feldspar, epidote, mica, and quartz, with some indication of increase in metamorphic grade downward. Regional geological and geophysical studies favor a depth of about 20,000 feet to pre-Tertiary basement rocks in the general area. A shallow basement or local upfaulting of old metamorphic rocks are not likely possibilities for the thermal area.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer","doi":"10.1007/BF02597534","usgsCitation":"White, D.E., 1964, Deep geothermal brine near Salton Sea, California: Bulletin Volcanologique, v. 27, p. 369-370, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02597534.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"369","endPage":"370","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":387170,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","otherGeospatial":"Salton Sea","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -116.16668701171875,\n 33.07082934859187\n ],\n [\n -115.55145263671876,\n 33.07082934859187\n ],\n [\n -115.55145263671876,\n 33.58259116393916\n ],\n [\n -116.16668701171875,\n 33.58259116393916\n ],\n [\n -116.16668701171875,\n 33.07082934859187\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"27","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, Donald E.","contributorId":76787,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":819271,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010547,"text":"70010547 - 1964 - Vapor pressure and vapor fractionation of silicate melts of tektite composition","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-24T00:48:19.253504","indexId":"70010547","displayToPublicDate":"1964-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1964","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1759,"text":"Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Vapor pressure and vapor fractionation of silicate melts of tektite composition","docAbstract":"The total vapor pressure of Philippine tektite melts of approximately 70 per cent silica has been determined at temperatures ranging from 1500 to 2100°C. This pressure is 190 ± 40 mm Hg at 1500°C, 450 ± 50 mm at 1800°C and 850 ± 70 mm at 2100° C. Determinations were made by visually observing the temperature at which bubbles began to form at a constant low ambient pressure. By varying the ambient pressure, a boiling point curve was constructed. This curve differs from the equilibrium vapor pressure curve due to surface tension effects. This difference was evaluated by determining the equilibrium bubble size in the melt and calculating the pressure due to surface tension, assuming the latter to be 380 dyn/cm.
The relative volatility from tektite melts of the oxides of Na, K, Fe, Al and Si has been determined as a function of temperature, total pressure arid roughly, of oxygen fugacity. The volatility of SiO2 is decreased and that of Na2O and K2O is increased in an oxygen-poor environment. Preliminary results indicate that volatilization at 2100°C under atmospheric pressure caused little or no change in the percentage Na2O and K2O. The ratio
Oxidation of the sulfur amino acids by autoxidizing lipids was studied in a model system consisting of an amino acid dispersed in cold-pressed, molecularly distilled menhaden oil (20–80% w/w). Under all conditions investigated, cysteine was oxidized completely to cystine. Preliminary results suggest that at 110°C the oxidation follows first-order kinetics for at least the first 8 hr. A specific reaction rate constant of 0.25 per hour was calculated. When fatty acids were added to the system, cystine was oxidized to its thiosulfinate ester. When the fatty acid-cystine ratio was 1:2, oxidation of cystine was a maximum. No oxidation of cystine occurred unless either a fatty acid, volatile organic acid, or ethanol was added. Under the conditions investigated, methionine was not oxidized to either its sulfoxide or its sulfone.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1111/j.1365-2621.1963.tb00239.x","usgsCitation":"Wedemeyer, G., and Dollar, A., 1963, Co-oxidation of the sulfur-containing amino acids in an autoxidizing lipid system: Journal of Food Science, v. 28, no. 5, p. 537-540, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1963.tb00239.x.","productDescription":"4 p.","startPage":"537","endPage":"540","numberOfPages":"4","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","costCenters":[{"id":654,"text":"Western Fisheries Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":313399,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"28","issue":"5","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2006-08-25","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"568cf73ee4b0e7a44bc0f13f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wedemeyer, Gary","contributorId":94244,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wedemeyer","given":"Gary","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":585143,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Dollar, A.M.","contributorId":150882,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Dollar","given":"A.M.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":585144,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70220622,"text":"70220622 - 1961 - Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions 1","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-05-21T15:27:07.396307","indexId":"70220622","displayToPublicDate":"1961-01-01T10:23:16","publicationYear":"1961","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions 1","docAbstract":"Assuming that many hydrothermal ore deposits are formed from emanations given off from a magma at depth while it cools through the interval in which latent heat of crystallization is generated, it is shown that this cooling interval for magmatic bodies of moderate size must be measured in tens or hundreds of thousands of years. Emanations from such a magma should change at the source with time: relatively insoluble volatiles should depart early and the more soluble ones late; the general order is probably sulfur gases and oxides of carbon, water, chlorides, and fluorides. Experimental and field evidence indicates that this order approximates the increasing solubility of these gases in natural magmas. Theoretical considerations show that within a hydrothermal conduit a relatively small gradient would soon be established between the magma and the surface. A small gradient suggests that temperature drop is a minor factor in precipitating substances in solution, whereas a drop in pressure and reaction with wall rocks or with material precipitated from earlier emanations would be of major importance. The sulfur-rich early emanations tend to react with indigenous iron of the country rock, or with iron carried by carbon dioxide-rich solutions to where a marked pressure drop occurs; either of these reactions will form abundant early iron sulfide. Later sulfur-deficient emanations, which then carry soluble halides of ore metals, react with this early iron sulfide to precipitate the ore mineral sulfides by replacement and deposition with loss of iron to the solution. Precipitation of much sulfide ore is thus commonly accomplished by sulfur that was fixed near the site of the ore body by earlier emanations from the magmatic source; a large amount of ore, however, may be precipitated from late-stage magmatic solutions where they mingle with early-stage sulfur-bearing solutions from a different magmatic source.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.56.1.68","usgsCitation":"Lovering, T.S., 1961, Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions 1: Economic Geology, v. 56, no. 1, p. 68-99, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.56.1.68.","productDescription":"32 p.","startPage":"68","endPage":"99","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":385841,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"56","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1961-01-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lovering, T. S.","contributorId":108085,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lovering","given":"T.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":816248,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70220623,"text":"70220623 - 1961 - Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions 1","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-05-21T15:25:56.952545","indexId":"70220623","displayToPublicDate":"1961-01-01T10:23:16","publicationYear":"1961","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions 1","docAbstract":"Assuming that many hydrothermal ore deposits are formed from emanations given off from a magma at depth while it cools through the interval in which latent heat of crystallization is generated, it is shown that this cooling interval for magmatic bodies of moderate size must be measured in tens or hundreds of thousands of years. Emanations from such a magma should change at the source with time: relatively insoluble volatiles should depart early and the more soluble ones late; the general order is probably sulfur gases and oxides of carbon, water, chlorides, and fluorides. Experimental and field evidence indicates that this order approximates the increasing solubility of these gases in natural magmas. Theoretical considerations show that within a hydrothermal conduit a relatively small gradient would soon be established between the magma and the surface. A small gradient suggests that temperature drop is a minor factor in precipitating substances in solution, whereas a drop in pressure and reaction with wall rocks or with material precipitated from earlier emanations would be of major importance. The sulfur-rich early emanations tend to react with indigenous iron of the country rock, or with iron carried by carbon dioxide-rich solutions to where a marked pressure drop occurs; either of these reactions will form abundant early iron sulfide. Later sulfur-deficient emanations, which then carry soluble halides of ore metals, react with this early iron sulfide to precipitate the ore mineral sulfides by replacement and deposition with loss of iron to the solution. Precipitation of much sulfide ore is thus commonly accomplished by sulfur that was fixed near the site of the ore body by earlier emanations from the magmatic source; a large amount of ore, however, may be precipitated from late-stage magmatic solutions where they mingle with early-stage sulfur-bearing solutions from a different magmatic source.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.56.1.68","usgsCitation":"Lovering, T.S., 1961, Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions 1: Economic Geology, v. 56, no. 1, p. 68-99, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.56.1.68.","productDescription":"32 p.","startPage":"68","endPage":"99","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":385840,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"56","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1961-01-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Lovering, T. S.","contributorId":108085,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lovering","given":"T.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":816247,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":47378,"text":"b1082D - 1960 - Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona","interactions":[{"subject":{"id":47378,"text":"b1082D - 1960 - Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona","indexId":"b1082D","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"chapter":"D","title":"Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona"},"predicate":"IS_PART_OF","object":{"id":33208,"text":"b1082 - 1962 - Contributions to economic geology, 1958","indexId":"b1082","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958"},"id":1},{"subject":{"id":55371,"text":"ofr4469 - 1944 - Dawley Canyon beryl-pegmatite area, Elko County, Nevada","indexId":"ofr4469","publicationYear":"1944","noYear":false,"title":"Dawley Canyon beryl-pegmatite area, Elko County, Nevada"},"predicate":"SUPERSEDED_BY","object":{"id":47378,"text":"b1082D - 1960 - Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona","indexId":"b1082D","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"chapter":"D","title":"Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona"},"id":2}],"isPartOf":{"id":33208,"text":"b1082 - 1962 - Contributions to economic geology, 1958","indexId":"b1082","publicationYear":"1962","noYear":false,"title":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958"},"lastModifiedDate":"2017-10-18T16:10:56","indexId":"b1082D","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1960","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":306,"text":"Bulletin","code":"B","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1082","chapter":"D","title":"Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona","docAbstract":"Pegmatite occurs widely in Nevada and northwestern Arizona, but little mining has been done for such pegmatite minerals as mica, feldspar, beryl, and lepidolite. Reconnaissance for beryl-bearing pegmatite in Nevada and in part of Mohave County, Ariz., and detailed studies in the Dawley Canyon area, Elko County, Nev., have shown that beryl occurs in at least 11 districts in the region. Muscovite has been prospected or mined in the Ruby and Virgin Mountains, Nev., and in Mohave County, Ariz. Feldspar has been mined in the southern part of the region near Kingman, Ariz., and in Clark County, Nev.
The pegmatites in the region range in age from Precambrian to late Mesozoic or Tertiary. Among the pegmatite minerals found or reported in the districts studied are beryl, chrysoberyl, scheelite, wolframite, garnet, tourmaline, fluorite, apatite, sphene, allanite, samarskite, euxenite, gadolinite, monazite, autunite, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite, molybdenite, and pyrite and other sulflde minerals.
The principal beryl-bearing pegmatites examined are in the Oreana and Lakeview (Humboldt Canyon) areas, Pershing County; the Dawley Canyon area in the Ruby Mountains, Elko County, Nev.; and on the Hummingbird claims in the Virgin Mountains, Mohave County, Ariz. Beryl has also been reported in the Marietta district, Mineral County; the Sylvania district, Esmeralda County; near Crescent Peak and near Searchlight, Clark County, Nev.; and in the Painted Desert near Hoover Dam, Mohave County, Ariz.
Pegmatites are abundant in the Ruby Mountains, chiefly north of the granite stock at Harrison Pass. In the Dawley Canyon area of 2.6 square miles at least 350 pegmatite dikes more than 1 foot thick were mapped, and beryl was found in small quantities in at least 100 of these dikes. Four of these dikes exceed 20 feet in thickness, and 1 is 55 feet thick. A few pegmatites were also examined in the Corral Creek, Gilbert Canyon, and Hankins Canyon areas in the Ruby Mountains.
The pegmatite dikes in the Dawley Canyon area intrude granite and metamorphic rocks which consist chiefly of quartzite and schist of probable Early Cambrian age. The granite is of two types: a biotite-muscovite granite that forms the main mass of the stock and albite granite that occurs in the metamorphic rocks near the borders of the stock. The pegmatites were emplaced chiefly along fractures in the granite and along schistosity or bedding planes in the metamorphic rocks.
Many of the Dawley Canyon pegmatite dikes are zoned, having several rock units of contrasting mineralogy or grain size formed successively from the walls inward. Aplitic units occur either as zones or in irregular positions in the pegmatite dikes and are a distinctive feature of the Dawley Canyon pegmatites. Some of the aplitic and fine-grained pegmatite units are characterized by thin layers of garnet crystals, forming many parallel bands on outcrop surfaces. The occurrence of aplitic and pegmatitic textures in the same dike presumably indicates abrupt changes in physical-chemical conditions during crystallization, such as changes in viscosity and in content of volatile constituents.
Concentrations of 0.1 percent or more beryl, locally more than 1 percent, occur in certain zones in the Dawley Canyon pegmatites. Spectrographic analyses of 23 samples indicate that the BeO content ranges from 0.0017 to 0.003 percent in the albite granite, from ,0.0013 to 0.039 percent in aplitic units in pegmatite, from 0.0005 to 0.10 percent in coarse-grained pegmatite, and from less than 0.0001 to 0.0004 percent in massive quartz veins.
The scheelite-beryl deposits at Oreana and in Humboldt Canyon, Pershing County, are rich in beryllium. Twelve samples from the Lakeview (Humboldt Canyon) deposit range from 0.018 to 0.11 percent BeO, but underground crosscuts have failed to intersect similar rock at depth. Beryl locally constitutes as much as 10 percent of the pegmatitic ore at Oreana. The beryl was not recovered during tungsten mining at Oreana and is now in the tailings of the mill at Toulon, Nev. The percentage of beryl is lower than the Oreana ore because of dilution by tailings from other ores milled at Toulon.
Beryl has been found in many pegmatite dikes in the Virgin Mountains. Both beryl and chrysoberyl occur in dikes on the Hummingbird claims, north of Virgin Peak, in Mohave County, Ariz. Spectrographic analyses of 5 representative samples of the principal dike on the Hummingbird claims range from 0.055 to 0.11 percent BeO.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Contributions to economic geology, 1958","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Government Printing Office","doi":"10.3133/b1082D","collaboration":"Prepared on behalf of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and published with the permission of the Commission","usgsCitation":"Olson, J.C., and Hinrichs, E.N., 1960, Beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains and other areas in Nevada and northwestern Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082, Report: v, 65 p.; 3 Plates: 26.57 x 28.89 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/b1082D.","productDescription":"Report: v, 65 p.; 3 Plates: 26.57 x 28.89 inches or smaller","startPage":"135","endPage":"200","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":100000,"rank":402,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082d/plate-5.pdf","text":"Plate 5","size":"697.11 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 5"},{"id":94031,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082d/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"5.75 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":99998,"rank":400,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082d/plate-3.pdf","text":"Plate 3","size":"362.85 kB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 3"},{"id":170744,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082d/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":99999,"rank":401,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1082d/plate-4.pdf","text":"Plate 4","size":"4.74 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 4"}],"country":"United States","state":"Arizona, Nevada","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -119.981689453125,\n 42.01665183556825\n ],\n [\n -119.99267578124999,\n 39.00211029922515\n ],\n [\n -114.59838867187499,\n 34.994003757575776\n ],\n [\n -113.21411132812499,\n 34.985003130171066\n ],\n [\n -113.258056640625,\n 37.020098201368114\n ],\n [\n -114.06005859375,\n 37.01132594307015\n ],\n [\n -114.0380859375,\n 42.00848901572399\n ],\n [\n -119.981689453125,\n 42.01665183556825\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a53e4b07f02db62af9f","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Olson, Jerry C.","contributorId":89202,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Olson","given":"Jerry","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235183,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hinrichs, E. Neal","contributorId":46488,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hinrichs","given":"E.","email":"","middleInitial":"Neal","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":235184,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":71664,"text":"tei655 - 1957 - Reconnaissance of beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains, other areas in Nevada, and northwestern Mohave County, Arizona","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2015-10-20T12:44:28","indexId":"tei655","displayToPublicDate":"2013-07-14T15:35:00","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"655","title":"Reconnaissance of beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains, other areas in Nevada, and northwestern Mohave County, Arizona","docAbstract":"Pegmatite occurs widely in Nevada and northwestern Arizona, but little mining has been done for such pegmatite minerals as mica, feldspar, beryl, and lepidolite. Reconnaissance for beryl-bearing pegmatite in Nevada and in part of Mohave County, Ariz., and detailed studies in the Dawley Canyon area, Elko County, Nev., have shown that beryl occurs in at least 11 districts in the region. Muscovite has been prospected or mined in the Ruby Mountains and the Virgin Mountains, Nevada, and in Mohave County, Ariz. Feldspar has been mined in the southern part of the region near Kingman, Ariz., and in Clark County, Nev.
\nThe pegmatites in the region range in age from Precambrian to late Mesozoic or Tertiary. Among the pegmatite minerals found or reported in the districts studied are beryl, chrysoberyl, scheelite, wolframite, garnet, tourmaline, fluorite, apatite, sphene, allanite, samarskite, euxenite, gadolinite, monazite, autunite, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite, molybdenite, and pyrite and other sulfide minerals.
\nThe principal beryl-bearing pegmatites examined are in the Oreana and Lakeview (Humboldt Canyon) areas, Pershing County; the Dawley Canyon area in the Ruby Mountains, Elko County, Nev.; and on the Hummingbird claims in the Virgin Mountains, Mohave County, Ariz. Beryl has also been reported in the Marietta district, Mineral County; the Sylvania district, Esmeralda County; near Crescent Peak and near Searchlight, Clark County, Nev.; and in the Painted Desert area near Hoover Dam, Mohave County, Ariz.
\nPegmatites are abundant in the Ruby Mountains, chiefly in the area north of the granite stock at Harrison Pass. In the Dawley Canyon area of 2.6 square miles at least 350 pegmatite dikes more than a foot thick were mapped and beryl was found in small quantities in at least 100 of these dikes. Four of these dikes exceed 20 feet in thickness, and one is 55 feet thick. A few pegmatites were also examined in the Corral Creek, Gilbert Canyon, and Hankins Canyon areas in the Ruby Mountains.
\nThe pegmatite dikes in the Dawley Canyon area intrude granite and metamorphic rocks which consist chiefly of quartzite and schist of probable Early Cambrian age. The granite is of two types: a biotite-muscovite granite that forms the main mass of the stock and muscovite granite that occurs in the metamorphic rocks near the borders of the stock. The pegmatites were emplaced chiefly along fractures in the granite and along schistosity or bedding planes in the metamorphic rocks.
\nMany of the Dawley Canyon pegmatite dikes are zoned, having several rock units of contrasting mineralogy or grain size successively from the walls inward. Aplitic units occur either as zones or in irregular positions in the pegmatite dikes and are a distinctive feature of the Dawley Canyon pegmatites. Some of the aplitic and fine-grained pegmatite units are characterized by thin layers of garnet crystals, forming many parallel bands on outcrop surfaces. The occurrence of aplitic and pegmatitic textural varieties in the same dike presumably indicates abrupt changes in physical-chemical conditions during crystallization, such as changes in viscosity and in content of volatile constituents.
\nConcentrations of 0.1 percent or more beryl, locally more than 1 percent, occur in certain zones or parts of zones in the Dawley Canyon pegmatites. Spectrographic analyses of 23 samples indicate that the BeO content ranges from 0.0017 to 0.003 percent in the muscovite granite, from 0.0013 to 0.039 percent in aplitic zones in pegmatite, from 0.0005 to 0.10 percent in coarse-grained pegmatite, and from less than 0.0001 to 0.0004 percent in massive quartz veins.
\nThe scheelite-beryl deposits at Oreana and in Humboldt Canyon, Pershing County., are rich in beryllium. Twelve samples from the Humboldt Canyon (Lakeview) deposit range from 0.018 to 0.11 percent BeO, but underground crosscuts have failed to intersect similar rock at depth. Beryl locally constitutes as much as 10 percent of the pegmati tic ore at Oreana. The beryl was not recovered during tungsten mining at Oreana and is now in the tailings of the mill at Toulon, Nevada, in lower percentages than the Oreana ore because of dilution by tailings from other ores milled at Toulon.
\nBeryl has been found in numerous pegmatite dikes in the Virgin Mountains. Both beryl and chrysoberyl occur in dikes in the Hummingbird claims, north of Virgin Peak, in Mohave County, Ariz. Spectra graphic analyses of five representative samples of the principal dike on the Hummingbird claims range from 0.055 to 0.11 percent BeO.
\n","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Washington, D.C.","doi":"10.3133/tei655","collaboration":"Work done on behalf of the Division of Raw Materials, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.","usgsCitation":"Olson, J.C., and Hinrichs, E.N., 1957, Reconnaissance of beryl-bearing pegmatites in the Ruby Mountains, other areas in Nevada, and northwestern Mohave County, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 655, Report: 13 p.; 1 Sheet: 13.85 x 16.54 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/tei655.","productDescription":"Report: 13 p.; 1 Sheet: 13.85 x 16.54 inches","numberOfPages":"14","onlineOnly":"Y","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":289992,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/tei655.jpg"},{"id":310150,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/655/report.pdf","text":"Report","size":"3.69 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":310151,"type":{"id":27,"text":"Table"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/655/table-1.pdf","text":"Table 1","size":"899.46 KB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Table 1"}],"country":"United States","state":"Arizona, Nevada","county":"Mohave County","otherGeospatial":"Ruby 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\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"53c4fc6fe4b0b58d96eeb60a","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Olson, Jerry Chipman","contributorId":57869,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Olson","given":"Jerry","email":"","middleInitial":"Chipman","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284569,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Hinrichs, E. Neal","contributorId":46488,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hinrichs","given":"E.","email":"","middleInitial":"Neal","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":284568,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70221359,"text":"70221359 - 1957 - Thermal waters of volcanic origin","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-11T13:23:35.475772","indexId":"70221359","displayToPublicDate":"1957-06-11T08:20:28","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1723,"text":"GSA Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Thermal waters of volcanic origin","docAbstract":"
Waters of widely differing chemical compositions have been considered at least in part volcanic in origin, and are commonly associated with each other in the same area. Do any or all of these types contain volcanic components, and if so, how are the different types derived?
To determine the probable characteristics of volcanic waters, the writer has selected hot-spring groups that are particularly high in temperature and associated heat flow, are associated with late Tertiary or Quaternary volcanism, and are therefore most likely to contain some water and chemical components of direct volcanic origin. Of the different types of water that occur in these groups, one of the most common is characterized chemically by a dominance of sodium chloride.
Isotopic evidence indicates that the contribution of water of direct volcanic origin is not large and is probably no more than 5 per cent in typical sodium-chloride springs.
The compositions of volcanic waters are believed to be determined by: [1] type of magma and stage of crystallization; [2] temperature and pressure of the emanation at different stages during and after departure from the magma; [3] chemical composition, relative quantity, and depth of penetration of mixing meteoric water and water of other origin; and [4] reactions with wall rocks. Although the type of magma and its stage of crystallization are of major interest and have been emphasized in the past, the outstanding characteristics of volcanic emanations at and near the surface of the earth seem to be controlled for the most part by the other factors.
Nonvolatile compounds are slightly to highly soluble in steam at high pressure, and high-density steam has solvent properties similar to those of liquid water. In the volcanic sodium-chloride waters, the high ratio of lithium to sodium and potassium is shown to indicate that alkalies were transported as alkali halides dissolved in a dense vapor. This in turn demands a deep circulation of meteoric water for steam to condense at high pressure and for the halides to remain in solution. The depth of circulation of meteoric water in the sodium-chloride spring systems is believed to be in the order of 2 miles. Where circulation of meteoric water is shallow, the vapors rise and expand at low pressure, which does not permit transport of substances of low volatility; some type of water other than the sodium-chloride type is formed. The common volcanic sodium-chloride waters are therefore concluded to be the diluted product of high-density emanations, modified by reactions with wall rocks and by precipitation of the less soluble components.
Emanations at high temperature and relatively low pressure consist almost entirely of steam and volatile components. Their compositions are therefore relatively simple, and their ability to transport matter of low volatility is very limited.
The sodium-chloride type is probably gradational into acid-sulfate-chloride waters. There is some evidence that, under conditions not well understood, sulfur may be emitted as SO2, SO3, or other sulfur species of intermediate valence, rather than as H2S or S. Other major types of volcanic waters are called sodium bicarbonate, acid sulfate, and calcium bicarbonate; the first two tend to be distinct, but the calcium-bicarbonate type clearly grades into the sodium-chloride type. The writer concludes that, in general, all these are derived from the sodium-chloride waters as a result of physical environment or of reactions with wall rocks.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"White, D.E., 1957, Thermal waters of volcanic origin: GSA Bulletin, v. 68, no. 12, p. 1637-1658, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"1637","endPage":"1658","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386422,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"68","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, Donald E.","contributorId":76787,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817420,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70221358,"text":"70221358 - 1957 - Magmatic, connate, and metamorphic waters","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-11T13:17:43.45072","indexId":"70221358","displayToPublicDate":"1957-06-11T08:14:41","publicationYear":"1957","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1723,"text":"GSA Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Magmatic, connate, and metamorphic waters","docAbstract":"Some major types of water of “deep” origin are believed to be recognizable from their chemical and isotopic compositions. Oil-field brines dominated by sodium and calcium chlorides differ markedly from average ocean water. In general, the brines are believed to be connate in origin (“fossil” sea water) with a negligible to high proportion of meteoric water. Many brines, particularly in pre-Tertiary rocks, are much higher in salinity than sea water and are greatly enriched in calcium as well as sodium chloride. Brines near the salinity of sea water are generally higher, relative to sea water, in bicarbonate, iodine, boron, lithium, silica, ammonium, and water-soluble organic compounds, and lower in sulfate, potassium, and magnesium.
Many changes take place after sea water is entrapped in newly deposited marine sediments: (1) Iodine, silicon, boron, nitrogen, and other elements have been selectively concentrated in organisms that decompose during and after burial in sediments. Many of the elements may redissolve in the interstitial water. (2) Bacteria are active in the sediments and reduce sulfate to sulfide and produce methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and other products. (3) Some elements have been selectively removed from sea water by inorganic processes, such as adsorption on clays and colloidal matter. When this matter is reconstituted by diagenetic and other changes, some components are redissolved. The abundance of lithium and possibly boron and other elements may be controlled to a considerable extent by these inorganic processes. (4) The interstitial water may react chemically with enclosing sediments and produce dolomite, reconstituted clays, and other minerals. The high loss of magnesium relative to calcium in most connate waters is probably caused by such reactions.
Volcanic hot-spring waters of different compositions have been discussed in an accompanying paper (White, 1957). The most significant type is believed to be dominated by sodium chloride, and is best explained as originating from dense gases driven at high temperature and pressure from magma and containing much matter of low volatility that is in solution because of the solvent properties of high-density steam. This dense vapor is condensed in and greatly diluted by deeply circulating meteoric water. Most other types of volcanic water are believed to be derived from the sodium-chloride type.
Volcanic sodium-chloride waters are similar in many respects to connate waters but are believed to be distinguishable by relatively high lithium, fluorine, silica, boron, sulfur, CO2, arsenic, and antimony; by relatively low calcium and magnesium; and by lack of hydrocarbons, water-soluble organic compounds, and perhaps ammonia and nitrate. Relatively high boron and combined CO2 are alone not reliable indicators of a volcanic origin.
During compaction, rocks lose most of their interstitial high-chloride water; much additional water may then be lost during progressive metamorphism, and the content changes from about 5 per cent in shale to perhaps 1 per cent in gneiss. This expelled water is here called metamorphic. Because of pressure and permeability gradients, it must normally escape upward and mix with connate and meteoric water. Even though large quantities must exist, no example of metamorphic water has been positively identified.
Some thermal springs in California are high in salinity and relatively low in temperature and apparent associated heat flow. Some are clearly connate in origin. Other springs are characterized by very high combined carbon dioxide and boron, relative to chloride. Their compositions are considerably different from known connate and volcanic waters and are believed to be best explained by a metamorphic origin.
Although some major types of deep water seem to be recognizable, there is much danger of oversimplifying the problems. Many waters are no doubt mixtures of different types, and some of high salinity result from dissolution of salts by meteoric water.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1659:MCAMW]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"White, D.E., 1957, Magmatic, connate, and metamorphic waters: GSA Bulletin, v. 68, no. 12, p. 1659-1682, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1659:MCAMW]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"24 p.","startPage":"1659","endPage":"1682","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386420,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"68","issue":"12","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"White, Donald E.","contributorId":76787,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"White","given":"Donald","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817419,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":4152,"text":"cir363 - 1955 - Coal reserves of the Pittsburgh (No. 8) bed in Belmont County, Ohio","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2022-01-27T22:30:09.132527","indexId":"cir363","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":307,"text":"Circular","code":"CIR","onlineIssn":"2330-5703","printIssn":"1067-084X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"363","title":"Coal reserves of the Pittsburgh (No. 8) bed in Belmont County, Ohio","docAbstract":"Remaining coal reserves totaling 1,929 million tons have been appraised in the Pittsburgh (No. 8) coal bed in Belmont County, Ohio. Of these, 508 million tons are classified as measured and 1,421 million tons are classified as indicated. All the coal has less than 1,000 feet of overburden, and most of it is of high volatile A bituminous rank. \r\n\r\nThis estimate is based on field work by the United States Geological Survey, supplemented by data from the fries of the Ohio Geological Survey and from mine and drill-hole records provided by mining companies.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/cir363","usgsCitation":"Berryhill, H., 1955, Coal reserves of the Pittsburgh (No. 8) bed in Belmont County, Ohio: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 363, iv, 11 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir363.","productDescription":"iv, 11 p.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":395026,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_23702.htm"},{"id":31258,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1955/0363/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}},{"id":122498,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1955/0363/report-thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Ohio","county":"Belmont County","otherGeospatial":"Pittsburgh (No. 8) bed","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -81.224,\n 39.841\n ],\n [\n -80.7,\n 39.841\n ],\n [\n -80.7,\n 40.167\n ],\n [\n -81.224,\n 40.167\n ],\n [\n -81.224,\n 39.841\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e49ace4b07f02db5c6b05","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Berryhill, Henry L.","contributorId":83107,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Berryhill","given":"Henry L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":148298,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70216050,"text":"70216050 - 1955 - Development of the hydrosphere and atmosphere, with special reference to probable composition of the early atmosphere","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-03T21:17:26.378599","indexId":"70216050","displayToPublicDate":"1955-11-03T15:11:36","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1727,"text":"GSA Special Papers","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Development of the hydrosphere and atmosphere, with special reference to probable composition of the early atmosphere","docAbstract":"A satisfactory hypothesis of the development of the hydrosphere and atmosphere depends upon evidence from many sciences and the solution of many other fundamental problems of earth history. But because it is so closely related to many other problems, any progress toward unravelling the history of the hydrosphere and atmosphere limits the range of permissible speculation about such distantly related questions as the origin of the solar system, continents, mountains, and living organisms. Several hypotheses of the source of the earth’s air and waters are examined for their consistency with established principles and observed geologic evidence, and special attention is given to the probable composition of the early atmosphere.
Hypotheses of the origin of the atmosphere and hydrosphere fall into two chief categories: (1) that all air and water of the earth are residual from a dense primitive atmosphere that once enveloped a molten globe; or (2) that they have accumulated at the earth’s surface by leakage from the interior.
The quantities of water, carbon dioxide, organic carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, etc., that have been or are now part of the earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere may be estimated within reasonable limits of uncertainty and these “excess” volatiles afford a basis for testing chemical consequences of the alternative hypotheses. Several writers have suggested that the primitive atmosphere may have been composed largely of CH4 and NH3. However, the equilibrium constants for reactions of these and other gases, combined with the evidence of the “excess” volatiles, indicate that CO2 and N2 are much more likely. The stabilities of methane and ammonia depend upon the presence of free hydrogen; and the escape rate of hydrogen from the earth is such that methane probably could have persisted in significant amounts in the early atmosphere no more than 106 to 108 years. For all but a relatively brief period at the very beginning of earth history, the atmosphere probably contained CO2 and N2 rather than CH4 and NH3.
When the consequences of a dense atmosphere of CO2 and N2 (but with almost no free O2 or H2) are examined, it is found that several chemical effects (such as the quantity of rocks that would have to be weathered, of sodium dissolved in sea water, and of CaCO3 deposited on the sea floor very early in early history) are not borne out by the observed geologic record. From this and other lines of evidence it seems extremely improbable that the present atmosphere and hydrosphere are residual from any such dense primitive atmosphere. Instead, it seems likely that the atmosphere and hydrosphere have accumulated gradually during geologic time by the escape of water vapor, CO2, CO, N2, and other volatiles from intrusive and extrusive rocks that have risen more or less continuously from the deep interior of the earth.
The amount of free oxygen in the early atmosphere is a separate problem that cannot be solved until the evidence of the earliest rocks has been appraised more fully. Current hypotheses of the origin of life appear to require a reducing atmosphere, yet it seems likely that oxygen has been accumulating from the photodissociation of water vapor ever since the earth was formed. The oxidation of ferrous iron and sulfides in the earliest sediments may have kept the oxygen content very low, and life may have begun in local reducing environments.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/SPE62-p631","usgsCitation":"Rubey, W.W., 1955, Development of the hydrosphere and atmosphere, with special reference to probable composition of the early atmosphere: GSA Special Papers, v. 62, p. 631-650, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE62-p631.","productDescription":"20 p.","startPage":"631","endPage":"650","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":380095,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"62","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rubey, William W.","contributorId":16899,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rubey","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":803873,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010694,"text":"70010694 - 1955 - Molybdenum blue reaction and determination of phosphorus in waters containing arsenic, silicon, and germanium","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-07-16T20:12:59.472605","indexId":"70010694","displayToPublicDate":"1955-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1955","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Molybdenum blue reaction and determination of phosphorus in waters containing arsenic, silicon, and germanium","docAbstract":"Microgram amounts of phosphate are usually determined by the molybdenum blue reaction, but this reaction is not specific for phosphorus. The research established the range of conditions under which phosphate, arsenate, silicate, and germanate give the molybdenum blue reaction for differentiating these elements, and developed a method for the determination of phosphate in waters containing up to 10 p.p.m. of the oxides of germanium, arsenic(V), and silicon. With stannous chloride or 1-amino-2-naphthol-4-sulfonic acid as the reducing agent no conditions were found for distinguishing silicate from germanate and phosphate from arsenate. In the recommended procedure the phosphate is concentrated by coprecipitation on aluminum hydroxide, and coprecipitated arsenic, germanium, and silicon are volatilized by a mixture of hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, and hydrobromic acids prior to the determination of phosphate. The authors are able to report that the total phosphorus content of several samples of sea water from the Gulf of Mexico ranged from 0.018 to 0.059 mg. of phosphorus pentoxide per liter of water.","language":"English","publisher":"ACS Publications","doi":"10.1021/ac60098a022","usgsCitation":"Levine, H., Rowe, J., and Grimaldi, F.S., 1955, Molybdenum blue reaction and determination of phosphorus in waters containing arsenic, silicon, and germanium: Analytical Chemistry, v. 27, no. 2, p. 258-262, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60098a022.","productDescription":"5 p.","startPage":"258","endPage":"262","numberOfPages":"5","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219475,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"27","issue":"2","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a5d2ee4b0c8380cd701f9","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Levine, H.","contributorId":39513,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Levine","given":"H.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359440,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Rowe, J.J.","contributorId":29460,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rowe","given":"J.J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359439,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Grimaldi, F. S.","contributorId":94286,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Grimaldi","given":"F.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359441,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70048361,"text":"tei456 - 1954 - Results of core drilling for uranium-bearing lignite, Mendenhall area, Harding County, South Dakota","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2013-11-22T09:22:35","indexId":"tei456","displayToPublicDate":"2009-02-10T15:01:00","publicationYear":"1954","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"456","title":"Results of core drilling for uranium-bearing lignite, Mendenhall area, Harding County, South Dakota","docAbstract":"Core drilling for data on uranium-bearing lignite in the Mendenhall area, Harding County, S. Dak. , was conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines during the period October 1952 to July 1953. Forty-two core holes totaling 9, 683 feet drilled in an area of about six square miles indicate a reserve of about 127/000,000 tons of lignite of which about 49,000,000 tons contain an average of 0.005 percent uranium or more. The Mendenhall area is near the center of the Slim Buttes, which are about 30 miles long from north to south. The uranium-bearing lignite averages, 5. 4 feet in thickness and occurs in the Ludlow member of the Fort Union formation of Paleocene age. Fuel analyses of about 130 samples indicate that the lignite contains about 15 percent ash, 36.7 percent moisture, 24r percent fixed carbon, 23.9 percent volatile matter, and 1.5 percent sulfur and has heating values of about 5,800 btu (as received). Uranium analyses of about 700 samples of lignite core indicate that about 2, 790 tons of uranium are present in the Mendenhall area. Inferred uranium reserves of 2,335 and .1. 050 tons are indicated by grade cutoffs of 0. 005 and 0. 01 percent uranium in the lignites, and 2, 065 and l s 35Stons are indicated by grade cutoffs of 0.03 and 0.05 percent uranium in the lignite ash. The above grade cutoffs have been incorporated on maps showing areal distribution:\nand thickness of mineralized beds.","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei456","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission","usgsCitation":"Gill, J.R., 1954, Results of core drilling for uranium-bearing lignite, Mendenhall area, Harding County, South Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 456, Report: 90 p.; Plate 3: 17.87 inches x 10.60 inches; Plate 4: 23.47 inches x 21.84 inches; Plate 5: 18.13 inches x 27.54 inches; Plate 6: 19.59 inches x 26.01 inches; Plate 7: 16.60 inches x 24.97 inches; Plate 8: 17.12 inches x 21.07 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/tei456.","productDescription":"Report: 90 p.; Plate 3: 17.87 inches x 10.60 inches; Plate 4: 23.47 inches x 21.84 inches; Plate 5: 18.13 inches x 27.54 inches; Plate 6: 19.59 inches x 26.01 inches; Plate 7: 16.60 inches x 24.97 inches; Plate 8: 17.12 inches x 21.07 inches","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":278014,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":279527,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/plate-3.pdf"},{"id":279528,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/plate-4.pdf"},{"id":279526,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/report.pdf"},{"id":279529,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/plate-5.pdf"},{"id":279530,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/plate-6.pdf"},{"id":279531,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/plate-7.pdf"},{"id":279532,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/456/plate-8.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"South Dakota","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -103.238635,45.387284 ], [ -103.238635,45.47112 ], [ -103.127169,45.47112 ], [ -103.127169,45.387284 ], [ -103.238635,45.387284 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"524162e8e4b0ec672f073b03","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Gill, James R.","contributorId":44904,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Gill","given":"James","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":484419,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":12514,"text":"ofr5414 - 1954 - Fusion of arkosic sand by intrusive andesite","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:06:46","indexId":"ofr5414","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1954","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"54-14","title":"Fusion of arkosic sand by intrusive andesite","docAbstract":"An andesite dike in the Valles Mountains of northern New Mexico has intruded and partly fused arkosic sediments for a distance of 50 feet from its contacts. The dike is semi-circular in form, has a maximum width of about 100 feet, and is about 500 feet long. Small associated arcuate dikes are arranged in spiral fashion around the main dike, suggesting that they were intruded along shear fractures similar to those described by Burbank (1941). The fused rocks surrounding the andesite dike are of three general types: 1) partly fused arkosic sand, 2) fused clay, and 3) hybrid rocks. The fused arkosic sand consists of relict detrital grains of quartz, orthoclose, and plagioclase, imbedded in colorless glass containing microlites of tridymite, cordierite, and magnetite. The relict quartz grains are corroded and embayed by glass; the orthoclase is sanidinized and partly fused; and the plagioclase is inverted to the high temperature form and is partly fused. The fused clay, which was originally a mixture of montmorillonite and hydromica, consists primarily of cordierite but also contains needle-like crystals of sillimanite (?) or mullite (?). The hybrid rocks originated in part by intermixing of fused arkosic sediments and andesitic liquid and in part by diffusion of mafic constituents through the fused sediments. They are rich in cordierite and magnetite and also contain hypersthene, augite, and plagioclase. The composition of pigeonite in the andesite indicates that the temperature of the andesite at the time of intrusion probably did not exceed 1200?C. Samples of arkosic sand were fused in the presence of water in a Morey bomb at 1050?C. Stability relations of certain minerals in the fused sand suggest that fusion may have taken place at a lower temperature, however, and the fluxing action of volatiles from the andesite are thought to have made this possible.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey],","doi":"10.3133/ofr5414","usgsCitation":"Bailey, R.A., 1954, Fusion of arkosic sand by intrusive andesite: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 54-14, 87 p. ill. (3 folded, col.) ;30 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr5414.","productDescription":"87 p. ill. (3 folded, col.) ;30 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":146451,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1954/0014/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":40757,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1954/0014/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b32e4b07f02db6b4276","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Bailey, Roy A.","contributorId":42576,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bailey","given":"Roy","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":166259,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ]}