No abstract available.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Chemical Society","doi":"10.1021/ac60091a029","usgsCitation":"Warner, C., and Tucker, W., 1954, Effect of ashing temperature on the volatility of germanium In low-rank coal samples: Analytical Chemistry, v. 26, no. 7, p. 1198-1199, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60091a029.","productDescription":"2 p.","startPage":"1198","endPage":"1199","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386534,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"26","issue":"7","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Warner, C.L.","contributorId":260353,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Warner","given":"C.L.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817757,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Tucker, W.P.","contributorId":260354,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Tucker","given":"W.P.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817758,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70009871,"text":"70009871 - 1954 - Double-chamber electrode for spectrochemical determination of chlorine and other halogens","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-27T20:47:46.713494","indexId":"70009871","displayToPublicDate":"1954-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1954","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3462,"text":"Spectrochimica Acta","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Double-chamber electrode for spectrochemical determination of chlorine and other halogens","docAbstract":"A double-chamber, graphite electrode, suitable for d.c. arc determination of halogens by means of the alkaline earth halide bands, is described. An upper chamber holds the alkaline earth compound and an interconnected, lower chamber holds the halogen compound.
This arrangement assures that there will be an abundance of alkaline earths in the arc by the time the halogen is volatilized from the lower chamber, and thereby promotes maximum emission of the alkaline earth halide bands.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/0371-1951(54)80015-4","issn":"03711951","usgsCitation":"Azevedo de Paiva, L.H., Specht, A.W., and Harner, R.S., 1954, Double-chamber electrode for spectrochemical determination of chlorine and other halogens: Spectrochimica Acta, v. 6, no. 4, p. 331-333, https://doi.org/10.1016/0371-1951(54)80015-4.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"331","endPage":"333","numberOfPages":"3","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":219191,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"6","issue":"4","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"505a03abe4b0c8380cd505d2","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Azevedo de Paiva, L. H.","contributorId":107565,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Azevedo de Paiva","given":"L.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357327,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Specht, A. W.","contributorId":52041,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Specht","given":"A.","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357326,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Harner, R. S.","contributorId":42600,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Harner","given":"R.","email":"","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":357325,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3}]}} ,{"id":70221521,"text":"70221521 - 1953 - Petrology of granophyre in diabase near Dillsburg, Pennsylvania","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-21T17:31:09.98079","indexId":"70221521","displayToPublicDate":"1953-08-01T12:24:27","publicationYear":"1953","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1786,"text":"Geological Society of America Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Petrology of granophyre in diabase near Dillsburg, Pennsylvania","docAbstract":"Small bodies of granophyre occur in the upper part of diabase bodies of Triassic age in southeastern Pennsylvania. One near Harrisburg was penetrated by a diamond-drill. Drill core specimens show a gradation from diabase to granophyre.
New data include 10 chemical analyses, spectrographic determinations of trace elements, and the results of petrographic study of specimens from the drill core. The sequence, from diabase to granophyre, includes a chilled zone that represents an original magma of tholeiitic composition, normal diabase, pegmatitic facies of diabase, and granophyric diabase that is intermediate in composition and petrographic characteristics between diabase and granophyre, and finally granophyre. Alkalies and silica increase progressively from diabase to granophyre; iron increases to a maximum in transitional granophyric diabase, then decreases in the granophyre.
It is concluded that crystal fractionation in a large sheetlike body of tholeiitic magma yielded a small amount of granophyre. Prior to complete solidification, a residual liquid rich in iron, alkalies, and silica accumulated locally in the upper part of the diabase sheet. In places volatile-rich iron-bearing solutions escaped into the overlying sedimentary rocks and deposited magnetite; the remaining liquid crystallized t o fine-grained granophyre.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1953)64[675:POGIDN]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"Hotz, P.E., 1953, Petrology of granophyre in diabase near Dillsburg, Pennsylvania: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 64, no. 6, p. 675-704, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1953)64[675:POGIDN]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"30 p.","startPage":"675","endPage":"704","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386616,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Pennsylvania","city":"Dillsburg","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -77.04900741577148,\n 40.107881296903194\n ],\n [\n -77.02720642089844,\n 40.107881296903194\n ],\n [\n -77.02720642089844,\n 40.12100925481713\n ],\n [\n -77.04900741577148,\n 40.12100925481713\n ],\n [\n -77.04900741577148,\n 40.107881296903194\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"64","issue":"6","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hotz, Preston E.","contributorId":37083,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hotz","given":"Preston","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":817924,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":71159,"text":"tei51 - 1953 - Uranium deposits at Shinarump Mesa and some adjacent areas in the Temple Mountain district, Emery County, Utah","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2014-06-03T09:14:55","indexId":"tei51","displayToPublicDate":"1953-01-01T11:01:00","publicationYear":"1953","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"51","title":"Uranium deposits at Shinarump Mesa and some adjacent areas in the Temple Mountain district, Emery County, Utah","docAbstract":"Deposits of uraniferous hydrocarbons are associated with carnotite in the Shinarump conglomerate of Triassic age at Shinarump Mesa and adjacent areas of the Temple Mountain district in the San Rafael Swell of Emery County, Utah. The irregular ore bodies of carnotite-bearing sandstone are genetically related to lenticular uraniferous ore bodies containing disseminated asphaltitic and humic hydrocarbon in permeable sandstones and were localized indirectly by sedimentary controls. Nearly non-uraniferous bitumen commonly permeates the sandstones in the Shinarump conglomerate and the underlying Moekopi formation in the area. The ore deposits at Temple Mountain have been altered locally by hydrothermal solutions, and in other deposits throughout the area carnotite has been transported by ground and surface water.
\nUraniferous asphaltite is thought to be the non-volatile residue of an original weakly uraniferous crude oil that migrated into the San Rafael anticline; the ore metals concentrated in the asphaltite as the oil was devolatilized and polymerized. Carnotite is thought to have formed from the asphaltite by ground water leaching.
\nIt is concluded that additional study of the genesis of the asphaltitic uranium ores in the San Rafael Swell, of the processes by which the hydrocarbons interact and are modified (such as heat, polymerization, and hydrogenation under the influence of alpha-ray bombardment), of petroleum source beds, and of volcanic intrusive rocks of Tertiary age are of fundamental importance in the continuing study of the uranium deposits on the Colorado Plateau.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei51","collaboration":"This report concerns work done on behalf of the Division of Raw Materials of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission","usgsCitation":"Wyant, D., 1953, Uranium deposits at Shinarump Mesa and some adjacent areas in the Temple Mountain district, Emery County, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 51, Report: 91 p.; 3 Plates: 30.44 x 20.69 inches and smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/tei51.","productDescription":"Report: 91 p.; 3 Plates: 30.44 x 20.69 inches and smaller","numberOfPages":"95","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":284500,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0051/plate-5.pdf"},{"id":284498,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0051/plate-3.pdf"},{"id":284499,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0051/plate-4.pdf"},{"id":284501,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/0051/report.pdf"},{"id":283474,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/tei51.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Utah","county":"Emery County","otherGeospatial":"Temple Mountain","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -111.307,38.4992 ], [ -111.307,39.7076 ], [ -109.9878,39.7076 ], [ -109.9878,38.4992 ], [ -111.307,38.4992 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"535595d6e4b0120853e8c2cd","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wyant, Donald G.","contributorId":75950,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wyant","given":"Donald G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":283745,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70159230,"text":"tei138 - 1952 - Geology of the Quartz Creek Pegmatite District, Gunnison County Colorado","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2015-10-30T10:48:25","indexId":"tei138","displayToPublicDate":"2015-07-06T08:00:00","publicationYear":"1952","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"138","title":"Geology of the Quartz Creek Pegmatite District, Gunnison County Colorado","docAbstract":"The Quartz Creek pegmatite district includes an area about 29 square miles in the vicinity of Quartz Creek in Gunnison County,. Colo. This area contains 1,803 pegmatites that are intruded into pre-Cambrian rocks.
\nThe rocks exposed in the district range in age from pre-Cambrian to Recent. The oldest pre-Cambrian rocks are chiefly quartzites interbedded with a few arkoses and conglomerates. These rocks are surrounded by more abundant hornblende gneiss and tonalite. A small body of biotite tonalite was intruded and two thin layers of dacitic pillow lava were extruded into this series. The hornblende gneiss and tonalite have the same composition and differ only in texture. The older material (hornblende gneiss) has a well-marked lineation, whereas the younger (tonalite) is equigranular. Subsequently, a large body of quartz monzonite was intruded along the northern boundary of the mapped area. Later, coarse-grained granite was intruded into the southern part of the area. Dikes of fine-grained granite cut the coarse-grained variety. The last period of intrusive activity in pre-Cambrian time is marked by a large number of pegmatites.
\nThe pre-Cambrian rocks were tilted and eroded, and the flatlying Jurassic Morrison formation was deposited on the irregular surface. This formation is conformably overlain by the Cretaceous Dakota sandstone. Faulting produced a vertical offset of 410 feet in the Mesozoic sediments along the only large fault in the area. At the end of Mesozoic time there was another period of erosion. Tertiary (?) tuff is exposed in small, scattered areas in the southern part of the district. It overlies both the Dakota sandstone and pre-Cambrian formations. Glacial till occurs along the edges of Quartz Creek and Wood Gulch. Quaternary alluvium fills the valley bottoms.
\nAlthough the composition of the country rock has little effect on the shape of the pegmatites, the foliation imposed on this rock has a localizing effect and in part controls the ultimate shape of pegmatites. Zoned and related internal structures are not well developed in the pegmatites of this region. Many of the pegmatites are homogeneous and those that are zoned usually contain a large wall zone and small discontinuous cores. In addition to the more common homogeneous and zoned pegmatites, 7 percent of the pegmatites show a layered structure of textural and mineralogical units not repeated on the opposite side of the pegmatite. Other internal structural units include pegmatites which vary in composition along strike, multiple or “line-rock pegmatites” and fracture fillings.
\nThe mineralogy of the pegmatites is described in detail. Specific attention was given to most of the 27 observed minerals. A study of the index of refraction of 439 specimens of plagioclase showed that the variation from zone to zone and layer to layer is minor and that there is no systematic variation in respect to the entire district. No correlation could be found between the refractive index of plagioclase in the pegmatites and the type country rock, or the presence of various accessory minerals.
\nIndex of refraction determinations on 95 specimens of muscovite showed no constant variation from wall zone to core or from layer to layer. Curved muscovite has identical optical properties with the flat variety. The index of refraction was determined for 189 beryl specimens. The beryl in the pegmatites containing only a wall zone and a core showed no difference between zones, but in pegmatites that have intermediate zones, the indices of refraction of the beryl showed an inward increase in the alkali content from the contact. Beryl occurs with almost all of the pegmatite minerals and is not restricted in its mineral associations.
\nTourmaline, except the black variety, is associated with lepidolite. Dark green and blue tourmaline is found in the outer zones of pegmatites containing lepidolite, and the pink and light green varieties are found in direct contact with lepidolite.
\nLepidolite occurs in aggregates of fine grains, in flat plates, and in curved plates; the three varieties are optically identical. The lighter-colored varieties have higher indices of refraction and contain less lithia than the darker varieties.
\nIn addition, the occurrence of the following minerals is described in detail: perthite, quartz, martite, biotite, garnet, columbite-tantalite, monazite, microlite, topaz, gahnite, allanite, and an unidentified mineral.
\nThe lack of alteration in the wall rocks adjacent to the pegmatites is interpreted as indicating that the original pegmatite magma did not have an excess of materials such as B, OH-, and P that are needed to form alteration minerals. Because of their low concentration, the above materials were available only in the pegmatitic magma during its crystallization. Pegmatites that contain the rare minerals such as beryl, tourmaline, curved muscovite, biotite, magnetite, monazite, columbite-tantalite, cleavelandite, topaz, lepidolite, and microlite show a grouping in clusters within the district.
\nBeryl-bearing pegmatites occur most abundantly in hornblende gneiss and are only rarely found in either granite or quartz monzonite. The types of minerals that form in a pegmatite appear to be determined by the character of the material segregated from the original magma and the period in which it segregated. The elements escape at one period and may be from only-a specific pocket in the magma. These liquids tend to form groups of pegmatites in which the later bodies contain a high proportion of volatiles.
\n\n
\n
Inferred reserves of the district are estimated for beryl, scrap mica, both hand-cobbing and milling feldspar, lepidolite, columbite-tantalite, topaz, monazite, and microlite. No sheet mica was found. Reserves are small and transportation costs are high so substantial production of low-priced feldspar and scrap mica will depend on the adoption of economica milling techniques for recovering the large quantities of feldspar available. Beryl is irregularly distributed and its recovery as a byproduct will depend on the establishment of a stable market for feldspar and scrap mica. Lepidolite reserves are small low grade.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/tei138","usgsCitation":"Staatz, M.H., and Trites, A., 1952, Geology of the Quartz Creek Pegmatite District, Gunnison County Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 138, Report: 288 p.; 11 Plates: 29.61 x 46.75 inches or smaller, https://doi.org/10.3133/tei138.","productDescription":"Report: 288 p.; 11 Plates: 29.61 x 46.75 inches or smaller","numberOfPages":"297","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":310072,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/tei138.PNG"},{"id":310797,"rank":3,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/plate-2.pdf","text":"Plate 2","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Plate 2"},{"id":310796,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/report.pdf","text":"Report","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Report"},{"id":310798,"rank":4,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/figure-9.pdf","text":"Figure 9","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Figure 9"},{"id":310799,"rank":5,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/figure-16.pdf","text":"Figure 16","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Figure 16"},{"id":310800,"rank":6,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/figure-17.pdf","text":"Figure 17","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Figure 17"},{"id":310801,"rank":7,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/figure-18.pdf","text":"Figure 18","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Figure 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27"},{"id":310807,"rank":13,"type":{"id":29,"text":"Figure"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/138/figure-28.pdf","text":"Figure 28","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Figure 28"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","county":"Gunnison 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Mortimer H.","contributorId":55494,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Staatz","given":"Mortimer","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":577873,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Trites, A.F.","contributorId":25196,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Trites","given":"A.F.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":577874,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":71321,"text":"tei267 - 1952 - The effect of ashing temperatures on the volatility of germanium in lignite samples","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-02-02T00:13:44","indexId":"tei267","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1952","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":337,"text":"Trace Elements Investigations","code":"TEI","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"267","title":"The effect of ashing temperatures on the volatility of germanium in lignite samples","language":"ENGLISH","doi":"10.3133/tei267","usgsCitation":"Tucker, W.P., and Waring, C., 1952, The effect of ashing temperatures on the volatility of germanium in lignite samples: U.S. Geological Survey Trace Elements Investigations 267, 8 p. ; 27 cm., https://doi.org/10.3133/tei267.","productDescription":"8 p. ; 27 cm.","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":186231,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/267/report-thumb.jpg"},{"id":90683,"rank":300,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/tei/267/report.pdf","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa8e4b07f02db667757","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Tucker, Wendell P.","contributorId":23629,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Tucker","given":"Wendell","email":"","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":283988,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Waring, Claude L.","contributorId":52241,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Waring","given":"Claude L.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":283989,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70221626,"text":"70221626 - 1951 - Geologic history of sea water: An attempt to state the problem","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-25T16:48:53.505239","indexId":"70221626","displayToPublicDate":"1951-10-01T11:46:04","publicationYear":"1951","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1786,"text":"Geological Society of America Bulletin","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Geologic history of sea water: An attempt to state the problem","docAbstract":"Paleontology and biochemistry together may yield fairly definite information, eventually, about the paleochemistry of sea water and atmosphere. Several less conclusive lines of evidence now available suggest that the composition of both sea water and atmosphere may have varied somewhat during the past; but the geologic record indicates that these variations have probably been within relatively narrow limits. A primary problem is how conditions could have remained so nearly constant for so long.
It is clear, even from inadequate data on the quantities and compositions of ancient sediments, that the more volatile materials—H2O, CO2, Cl, N, and S— are much too abundant in the present atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere and in ancient sediments to be explained, like the commoner rock-forming oxides, as the products of rock weathering alone. If the earth were once entirely gaseous or molten, these “excess” volatiles may be residual from a primitive atmosphere. But if so, certain corollaries should follow about the quantity of water dissolved in the molten earth and the expected chemical effects of a highly acid, primitive ocean. These corollaries appear to be contradicted by the geologic record, and doubt is therefore cast on this hypothesis of a dense primitive atmosphere. It seems more probable that only a small fraction of the total “excess” volatiles was ever present at one time in the early atmosphere and ocean.
Carbon plays a significant part in the chemistry of sea water and in the realm of living matter. The amount now buried as carbonates and organic carbon in sedimentary rocks is about 600 times as great as that in today's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. If only 1/100 of this buried carbon were suddenly added to the present atmosphere and ocean, many species of marine organisms would probably be exterminated. Furthermore, unless CO2 is being added continuously to the atmosphere-ocean system from some source other than rock weathering, the present rate of its subtraction by sedimentation would, in only a few million years, cause brucite to take the place of calcite as a common marine sediment. Apparently, the geologic record shows no evidence of such simultaneous extinctions of many species nor such deposits of brucite. Evidently the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and ocean has remained relatively constant throughout much of the geologic past. This calls for some source of gradual and continuous supply, over and above that from rock weathering and from the metamorphism of older sedimentary rocks.
A clue to this source is afforded by the relative amounts of the different “excess” volatiles. These are similar to the relative amounts of the same materials in gases escaping from volcanoes, fumaroles, and hot springs and in gases occluded in igneous rocks. Conceivably, therefore, the hydrosphere and atmosphere may have come almost entirely from such plutonic gases. During the crystallization of magmas, volatiles such as H2O and CO2 accumulate in the remaining melt and are largely expelled as part of the final fractions. Volcanic eruptions and lava flows have brought volatiles to the earth's surface throughout the geologic past; but intrusive rocks are probably a much more adequate source of the constituents of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Judged by the thermal springs of the United States, hot springs (carrying only 1 per cent or less of juvenile matter) may be the principal channels by which the “excess” volatiles have escaped from cooling magmas below.
This mechanism fails to account for a continuous supply of volatiles unless it also provides for a continuous generation of new, volatile-rich magmas. Possibly such local magmas form by a continuous process of selective fusion of subcrustal rocks, to a depth of several hundred kilometers below the more mobile areas of the crust. This would imply that the volume of the ocean has grown with time. On this point, geologic evidence permits differences of interpretation; the record admittedly does not prove, but it seems consistent with, an increasing growth of the continental masses and a progressive sinking of oceanic basins. Perhaps something like the following mechanism could account for a continuous escape of volatiles to the earth's surface and a relatively uniform composition of sea water through much of geologic time: (1) selective fusion of lower-melting fractions from deep-seated, nearly anhydrous rocks beneath the unstable continental margins and geosynclines; (2) rise of these selected fractions (as granitic and hydrous magmas) and their slow crystallization nearer the surface; (3) essentially continuous isostatic readjustment between the differentiating continental masses and adjacent ocean basins; and (4) renewed erosion and sedimentation, with resulting instability of continental margins and mountainous areas and a new round of selective fusion below.
","language":"English","publisher":"Geological Society of America","doi":"10.1130/0016-7606(1951)62[1111:GHOSW]2.0.CO;2","usgsCitation":"Rubey, W.W., 1951, Geologic history of sea water: An attempt to state the problem: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 62, no. 9, p. 1111-1148, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1951)62[1111:GHOSW]2.0.CO;2.","productDescription":"48 p.","startPage":"1111","endPage":"1148","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386749,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"62","issue":"9","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Rubey, William W.","contributorId":16899,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Rubey","given":"William","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":818281,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70221635,"text":"70221635 - 1951 - Ilmenite, magnetite, hematite, and copper in lavas of the Keweenawan series","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2021-06-25T20:15:53.994381","indexId":"70221635","displayToPublicDate":"1951-01-01T15:09:23","publicationYear":"1951","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1472,"text":"Economic Geology","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Ilmenite, magnetite, hematite, and copper in lavas of the Keweenawan series","docAbstract":"The opaque minerals in ten lava flows of the Keweenawan series of Michigan were studied microscopically by the writer. The basaltic lavas, which range in thickness from 100 to 1,400 feet, contain ilmenite, magnetite, hematite, intergrowths of magnetite-ilmenite and ilmenite-hematite, copper sulfides, native copper, and pyrite. Variations of opaque iron minerals with thickness of flow are slight, but native copper predominates in the thinner flows and copper sulfides in the thickest. Pyrite occurs only in the thickest flow. Two groups of opaque minerals and their alteration products are distinguished. The earlier group includes magnetite, ilmenite, magnetite-ilmenite and ilmenite-hematite intergrowths, copper sulfides, and native copper. The later group includes hematite, native copper, chalcocite, pyrite, chlorite, and sphene. The second-generation minerals formed by the action of volatiles escaping from the lavas. The ratio of Ti to total Fe correlates with the degree of differentiation of the lavas, but the ratio of ferric to ferrous iron does not. The latter ratio was controlled primarily by the action of escaping volatiles.
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Economic Geologists","doi":"10.2113/gsecongeo.46.1.51","usgsCitation":"Cornwall, H.R., 1951, Ilmenite, magnetite, hematite, and copper in lavas of the Keweenawan series: Economic Geology, v. 46, no. 1, p. 51-67, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.46.1.51.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"51","endPage":"67","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":386755,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"46","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"1951-01-01","publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Cornwall, Henry Rowland","contributorId":68304,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cornwall","given":"Henry","email":"","middleInitial":"Rowland","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":818290,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":14213,"text":"ofr4933 - 1949 - Petrology and habit of some diabase sheets in southeastern Pennsylvania","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2025-07-16T17:55:17.570708","indexId":"ofr4933","displayToPublicDate":"1994-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1949","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"49-33","title":"Petrology and habit of some diabase sheets in southeastern Pennsylvania","docAbstract":"Small masses of granophyre occur in the upper part of diabase intrusions southeastern Pennsylvania. Diamond drill hole exploration of magnetite deposits near Dillsburg revealed a body of diabase beneath the sedimentary rocks in which the deposits occur. The drill core revealed a complete gradational sequence downward from a diabase chill zone through normal diabase, diabase pegmatite, transitional granophyric diabase into granophyre.
New data include the results of petrographic study of a series of specimens from the drill core and 10 new chemical analyses. The sequence, diabase to granophyre, shows progressive increase in alkalies and silica; iron increases into the transitional granophric diabase stage, then decreases in the granophyre. The chemical variations are accompanied by changes in mineralogy which are described in detail.
Field and petrographic studies of other granophyre masses were likewise made.
Possible origins of granophyre from diabase are considered, and it is concluded that crystal differentiation in a large sheetlike intrusion most satisfactorily explains the genesis of granophyre in this region. Prior to complete solidification a residual liquid rich in iron, alkalies, silica, and volatiles collected locally in the upper part of the diabase sheet. In some places fractures released volatile-rich iron-bearing solutions which deposited magnetite in the overlying sedimentary rocks; the remaining liquid crystallized to fine grained granophyre. Elsewhere the volatiles were retained for a longer period; the resulting rock is coarse-grained with numerous miarolitic cavities.
Ring-like outcrop patterns are characteristic of the diabase intrusions in southeastern Pennsylvania. Drill hole and geophysical data indicate that the diabase of these rings has the form of generally discordant curved sheets or basins. Pre-existing fractures or potential lines of weakness may have controlled the sheet-like form, or because of existing pressure conditions the diabase magma was forced to spread laterally rather than rise vertically.
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\"}}]}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adfe4b07f02db687c61","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Holtz, Preston Enslow","contributorId":65479,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Holtz","given":"Preston","email":"","middleInitial":"Enslow","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":169090,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70010889,"text":"70010889 - 1949 - Determination of lithium in rocks by distillation","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2020-11-23T17:40:32.955606","indexId":"70010889","displayToPublicDate":"1949-01-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"1949","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":761,"text":"Analytical Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Determination of lithium in rocks by distillation","docAbstract":"A method for the quantitative extraction and recovery of lithium from rocks is based on a high temperature volatilization procedure. The sample is sintered with a calcium carbonate-calcium chloride mixture at 1200° C. for 30 minutes in a platinum ignition tube, and the volatilization product is collected in a plug of Pyrex glass wool in a connecting Pyrex tube. The distillate, which consists of the alkali chlorides with a maximum of 5 to 20 mg. of calcium oxide and traces of a few other elements, is removed from the apparatus by dissolving in dilute hydrochloric acid and subjected to standard analytiaal procedures. The sinter residues contained less than 0.0005% lithium oxide. Lithium oxide was recovered from synthetic samples with an average error of 1.1%.
","language":"English","publisher":"ACS Publications","doi":"10.1021/ac60025a031","usgsCitation":"Fletcher, M.H., 1949, Determination of lithium in rocks by distillation: Analytical Chemistry, v. 21, no. 1, p. 173-175, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60025a031.","productDescription":"3 p.","startPage":"173","endPage":"175","numberOfPages":"3","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":221335,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"21","issue":"1","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2002-05-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5059ffb2e4b0c8380cd4f336","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Fletcher, M. H.","contributorId":53438,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fletcher","given":"M.","email":"","middleInitial":"H.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":359847,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":70161784,"text":"70161784 - 1942 - General geology and ground-water resources of the island of Maui, Hawaii","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2016-01-06T10:47:25","indexId":"70161784","displayToPublicDate":"1942-01-01T11:00:00","publicationYear":"1942","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":4,"text":"Other Government Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":242,"text":"Bulletin","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":4}},"seriesNumber":"7","title":"General geology and ground-water resources of the island of Maui, Hawaii","docAbstract":"Maui, the second largest island in the Hawaiian group, is 48 miles long, 26 miles wide, and covers 728 square miles. The principal town is Wailuku. Sugar cane and pineapples are the principal crops. Water is used chiefly for irrigating cane. The purpose of the investigation was to study the geology and the ground-water resources of the island.
Maui was built by two volcanoes. East Maui or Haleakala Volcano is 10,025 feet high and famous for its so-called crater, which is a section of Hawaii National Park. Evidence is given to show that it is the head of two amphitheater-headed valleys in which numerous secondary eruptions have occurred and that it is not a crater, caldera, or eroded caldera. West Maui is a deeply dissected volcano 5,788 feet high. The flat Isthmus connecting the two volcanoes was made by lavas from East Maui banking against the West Maui Mountains. Plate 1 shows the geology, wells, springs, and water-development tunnels. Plate 2 is a map and description of points of geologic interest along the main highways. Volcanic terms used in the report are briefly defined. A synopsis of the climate is included and a record of the annual rainfall at all stations is given also. Puu Kukui, on West Maui, has an average annual rainfall of 389 inches and it lies just six miles from Olowalu where only 2 inches of rain fell in 1928, the lowest ever recorded in the Hawaiian Islands. The second rainiest place in the Territory is Kuhiwa Gulch on East Maui where 523 inches fell during 1937. Rainfall averages 2,360 million gallons daily on East Maui and 580 on West Maui. Ground water at the point of use in months of low rainfall is worth about $120 per million gallons, which makes most undeveloped supplies valuable.
The oldest rocks on East Maui are the very permeable primitive Honomanu basalts, which were extruded probably in Pliocene and early Pleistocene time from three rift zones. These rocks form a dome about 8,000 feet high and extend an unknown distance below sea level. Covering this dome are the Kula volcanics, extruded probably in early and middle Pleistocene time, and characterized by andesites, andesitic basalts, and picritic basalts. They are 2.000 feet thick on the summit and 50 to 200 feet thick at the periphery. They contain a sufficient number of interbedded soils, thin vitric tuff beds, and lava-filled valleys in their upper part to give rise to valuable perched springs in wet areas. The Kula lavas accumulated during a waning volcanic phase which was followed by a quiescence long enough for the erosion of deep amphitheater-headed valleys in the east or wet half of the mountain. Volcanic activity was renewed in middle (?) to late Pleistocene time and continued until Recent time, during which the Hana volcanic series was laid down. The last lava flow was erupted about 1750. The Hana lavas comprise andesitic, picritic, and olivine basalts. They veneered large areas of the east and south slopes, partly filled the deep amphitheater-headed valleys, and deeply buried the smaller valleys in the eastern half of the mountain. The Hana rocks are exceedingly permeable and much rain sinks into them.
The oldest rocks on West Maui are the very permeable primitive Wailuku basalts, which were extruded probably in Pliocene and early Pleistocene time from two rifts and from many radial fissures. The basalts form a dome about 5,600 feet high and extend an unknown distance below sea level. Iao Valley is the eroded caldera of this dome. Forming an incomplete veneer over the dome are the Honolua soda trachytes and oligoclase andesites. They were extruded in late Pliocene (?) or early Pleistocene time, chiefly from bulbous domes. The clinker beds carry some water but the rocks are generally too dense to be good aquifers. During early (?) Pleistocene the West Maui volcano was cut by deep amphitheater-headed valleys and then all of Maui was deeply submerged.
Four scattered eruptions occurred on West Maui in middle (?) and late Pleistocene time. The cones and lavas cover only small areas and are called the Lahaina volcanic series.
The sedimentary rocks of both East and West Maui are chiefly late Quaternary and comprise fans, landslide debris, delta deposits, and valley fills, mostly of poorly permeable and poorly assorted bouldery alluvium. They are overlain on the Isthmus by extensive calcareous dunes of three ages. A mud flow more than 300 feet thick is exposed in Kaupo Valley. During the fluctuations of the ocean in the Pleistocene, the island was emerged and submerged several times. Calcareous fossiliferous marine conglomerates deposited during this period are found up to an altitude of 250 feet on West Maui.
The Homomanu, Wailuku, and Kula lavas are the chief aquifers. They supply 28 irrigation wells which yield an average of 170 million gallons a day of basal water. These wells are mine-like shafts with infiltration tunnels and are called Maui-type wells. Well 16 yields 40,000,000 gallons daily with a 22-foot drawdown, which is the largest amount yielded by any well in the Hawaiian Islands. The largest spring (no. 26) on the island is artesian. It yields 10,400,000 gallons daily and issues from Kula lavas near Nahiku. West Maui has numerous perennial streams supplied by springs from a dike complex. Twenty-three tunnels in West Maui recover 20.5 million gallons a day of high-level water, mostly from this dike complex. East Maui has few perennial streams in proportion to its size, and they are chiefly small due to the water sheds being underlain with permeable lavas. Forty tunnels recover 6 million gallons a day of high-level water in East Maui and all from structures other than dikes.
It is estimated that about 100 million gallons a day of basal water wastes into the sea from West Maui and about 700 million gallons a day from East Maui. A number of sites are described where wells could be sunk to recover this water. Sites are also described where tunnels could be driven to recover high-level supplies. The hydrology of East and West Maui is conspicuously different in many respects, mainly because of the difference in the stage of dissection, the extensive veneer of very permeable Hann lavas on East Maui, and the comparatively small area of the Lahaina lavas of similar age on West Maui. The only thermal water known in the Hawaiian Islands, except on the active volcano of Kilauea, is in a well in West Maui.
The Nahiku area has been mapped and studied in detail. The upper part of the Honomanu volcanic series, exposed in the sea cliffs, in petrographic character is transitional into the overlying Kula lavas, Kula and Hana time were characterized by a long succession of valley-cutting episodes, each valley being filled by lava erupted from the east rift zone. The lavas include olivine basalts, picritic basalts, and basaltic andesites,
In the Nahiku area basal ground water occurs largely in the Honomanu basalts. Perched water occurs in many of the later lavas, generally following the axes of buried valleys. The members which perch the water are mostly ashy soil beds, although an unusually extensive, thick layer of much decomposed clinker also appears to be a supporting member. Most of the water travels through the basal clinker members of aa lavas. Artesian water is encountered in the upper, transitional part of the Honomanu volcanic series. The aquifer is permeable porphyritic pahoehoe; the confining members are relatively impermeable nonporphyritic aa.
The lavas of East Maui are described according to stratigraphic groups. The oldest or Honomanu lavas are olivine basalts like the primitive lavas in other Hawaiian volcanoes. The later or Kula and Hana lavas include basalts, basaltic andesites, andesites, and picritic basalts. The normative nepheline of analyzed East Maui lavas has not been identified in the mode. The degree of differentiation is inversely proportional to the frequency of eruptions.
The lavas of West Maui volcano are divided into the Wailuku volcanic series, consisting largely of olivine basalts with less abundant olivine-poor basalts, hypersthene basalts, and picritic basalts; the Honolua volcanic series, consisting of oligoclase andesites and soda trachytes; and the Lahaina volcanic series, consisting of nepheline basanite and picritic basalts. Coarse-grained gabbros intrude the Wailuku lavas. Differentiation was undoubtedly partly by crystal settling, but the alkali curves of the variation diagram suggest that volatile transfer was of some importance.
Eight characteristics of sediments are considered as possible means of recognizing source beds: 1, quantity of organic matter in the sediments; 2, reducing power, which is a measure of ability of the sediments to reduce chromic acid; 3, color of sediments; 4, volatility of sediments; 5, degree of volatility, which is a measure of the volatility with respect to the organic content; 6, ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the sediments; 7, oxidation factor, which is an index of the state of oxidation of the sediments, and is the ratio of the carbon content to' the reducing power; and, 8, the nitrogen-reduction ratio, which is the ratio of the nitrogen content to the reducing power. Several thousand determinations of these characteristics have been made and averaged from more than 800 lithologic units from many areas in the California, Rocky Mountain, Mid Continent, East Texas, and Gulf Coast oil regions. The thickness of these units ranges from 50 ft. to 500 ft. Each of them has been classified according to its probable richness in source material of petroleum. Nearness to producing zones has been the basis of classification, as it seems more reasonable to assume that oil in general accumulates near where it is generated than to assume that it ordinarily accumulates far from where it is made. Three classes were made: 1, lithologic units within 250 ft. stratigraphically above or below an oil zone and less than 2 miles from an oil field; 2, (a) units within 500 ft. above or below an oil zone and within 15 miles of an oil field (excluding, of course, those that belong to the first class) and (b) units within 250 ft. stratigraphically of a horizon and more than 15 miles distant from an oil field, provided the unit is located within a region in which the horizon is generally productive of oil or yields significant quantity of oily substances when extracted with ether; and, 3, all other beds, viz., those more than 500 ft. above or below an oil horizon or more than 15 miles distant from an oil field and beds at greater distance if they are within 250 ft. of horizons that generally contain oil in the area. These three classes are designated in this report as \" productive,\" \" questionably productive,\" and \" barren.\" \" Productive \" units naturally may contain spine beds that are poor in source material, and \" barren \" units may contain beds that are rich in source material; but, on the whole, the \" productive \" units-because of their nearness to oil zones-are more likely' to be richer in mother substances of petroleum than are the \" barren \" units. Each of the eight characteristics was averaged for each of the three classes of productivity, for each of the five oil areas: California, Rocky Mountains, Mid Continent, East Texas, and Gulf Coast. The average organic content of the \"productive\" and \" barren \" units was found to be approximately the same in each region studied, from which it is inferred that the quantity of organic matter in a sediment probably is not a reliable guide of the ability of the sediments to generate oil. The average reducing power of the \" productive \" beds is slightly greater than that of the \"barren\"; but the difference is so slight that the reducing power, also, probably is not a satisfactory guide to source beds. The color of, the sediments, in general, becomes darker as the organic content of the sediments increases; and, as the organic content seems to be a poor index of source beds, color presumably is not a serviceable means of recognizing source beds. The volatility of the \" productive \" beds is greater than that of the \" barren \" units in each of the five regions, but it differs so much from region to region that it cannot be used as an index of source beds unless the general volatility of the sediments in the region under consideration is known. For example, the average volatility of the \" barren \" units in California and the Rocky Mountain regions is greater than that of the \" productive \" units in the Mid Continent, East Texas, and Gulf Coast areas. The degree of volatility differs less from region to region than does the volatility, and in general exhibits a relationship to productivity equally as good as the volatility. The average ratio of carbon to nitrogen in each of the three regions from which data are available-Rocky Mountains, Mid Continent, and East Texas-is higher for \" productive \" beds than for \" barren \" units, but the ratio differs somewhat from one region to another. The oxidation factor of the \" productive \" units is approximately the same as that of the \" barren \" units in the Rocky Mountain region and in the East Texas region, but not in the Mid Continent region-where the oxidation factor of the \" productive \" units is definitely lower than that of the \" barren \" units. The average nitrogen-reduction ratio of the \" productive \" units is decidedly greater than that of the \" barren \" units in each of the five regions studied; and it, therefore, is the most reliable of the guides studied. Relatively few \" productive \" units have nitrogen-reduction ratios greater than 7.0, and relatively few \" barren \" units have ratios of less than 4.5. A considerable number of both \" productive \" and \" barren \" units have ratios ranging between 4.5 and 7.0, but even between these limits the productive units tend to be more commonly associated with low ratios than are the \" barren \" units. Four of these eight characteristics-volatility, degree of volatility, carbon-nitrogen ratio, and nitrogen-reduction ratio-therefore, give promise of being useful means of recognizing source beds; and one of them, the nitrogen-reduction ratio, is particularly encouraging. Additional studies of these four characteristics, and especially of the nitrogen-reduction ratio, are highly desirable.
","conferenceTitle":"Drilling and Production Practice 1936","conferenceLocation":"New York, New York","language":"English","publisher":"American Petroleum Institute","usgsCitation":"Trask, P., and Patnode, H., 1936, Means of recognizing source beds, Drilling and Production Practice 1936, New York, New York, p. 368-384.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"368","endPage":"384","costCenters":[],"links":[{"id":378147,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Trask, P.D.","contributorId":12545,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Trask","given":"P.D.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":797960,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Patnode, H.W.","contributorId":108170,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Patnode","given":"H.W.","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":797961,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70206681,"text":"70206681 - 1934 - The Rôle of volatiles in the formation of Virginia titanium deposits","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-11-16T17:40:10","indexId":"70206681","displayToPublicDate":"1934-06-30T17:35:19","publicationYear":"1934","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1578,"text":"Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union","onlineIssn":"2324-9250","printIssn":"0096-394","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"The Rôle of volatiles in the formation of Virginia titanium deposits","docAbstract":"The feldspathic rock with which the titanium deposits of Virginia are associated appears to be an anorthosite, although the plagioclase is somewhat more sodic than in normal anorthosites. That is, this rock shows evidence of having been introduced as a mush‐like mass of crystals and intersititial magma, and of undergoing very thorough crushing during introduction. This rook was later very thoroughly altered by hydrothermal solutions which migrated through the fractures in the feldspar rook and new minerals including the titanium minerals—rutile and ilmenite—were introduced. The elements introduced into the feldspathic rock ware TiO2 FeO, MgO, P2O5, and F. The other elements that went into the formation of new minerals were derived from the feldspar originally present. There was a distinct order in the abstraction of the introduced elements from the carrying solutions, as shown by the zonal relatione of the secondary minerals. Ferrous iron was abstracted first in the formation of the ferromagnesian silicates and ilmenite. Magnesium and titanium, in the absence of iron, traveled farther from the source of the solutions and deposited rutile and magnesian silicates. At greater distances most of the introduced elements had been abstracted from the solutions but notwithstanding this the feldspar was extensively altered, but without any marked changes between the chemical composition of the original feldspar rook and the resulting altered rook. ©1934. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.
","language":"English","publisher":"American Geophysical Union","doi":"10.1029/TR015i001p00245","issn":"00028606","usgsCitation":"Ross, C.S., 1934, The Rôle of volatiles in the formation of Virginia titanium deposits: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v. 15, no. 1, p. 245-245, https://doi.org/10.1029/TR015i001p00245.","productDescription":"1 p. 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