The rare-earth elements (REEs) are 15 elements that range in atomic number from 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutetium); they are commonly referred to as the “lanthanides.” Yttrium (atomic number 39) is also commonly regarded as an REE because it shares chemical and physical similarities and has affinities with the lanthanides. Although REEs are not rare in terms of average crustal abundance, the concentrated deposits of REEs are limited in number.
Because of their unusual physical and chemical properties, the REEs have diverse defense, energy, industrial, and military technology applications. The glass industry is the leading consumer of REE raw materials, which are used for glass polishing and as additives that provide color and special optical properties to the glass. Lanthanum-based catalysts are used in petroleum refining, and cerium-based catalysts are used in automotive catalytic converters. The use of REEs in magnets is a rapidly increasing application. Neodymium-iron-boron magnets, which are the strongest known type of magnets, are used when space and weight are restrictions. Nickel-metal hydride batteries use anodes made of a lanthanum-based alloys.
China, which has led the world production of REEs for decades, accounted for more than 90 percent of global production and supply, on average, during the past decade. Citing a need to retain its limited REE resources to meet domestic requirements as well as concerns about the environmental effects of mining, China began placing restrictions on the supply of REEs in 2010 through the imposition of quotas, licenses, and taxes. As a result, the global rare-earth industry has increased its stockpiling of REEs; explored for deposits outside of China; and promoted new efforts to conserve, recycle, and substitute for REEs. New mine production began at Mount Weld in Western Australia, and numerous other exploration and development projects noted in this chapter are ongoing throughout the world.
The REE-bearing minerals are diverse and often complex in composition. At least 245 individual REE-bearing minerals are recognized; they are mainly carbonates, fluorocarbonates, and hydroxylcarbonates (n = 42); oxides (n = 59); silicates (n = 85); and phosphates (n = 26).
Many of the world’s significant REE deposits occur in carbonatites, which are carbonate igneous rocks. The REEs also have a strong genetic association with alkaline magmatism. The systematic geologic and chemical processes that explain these observations are not well understood. Economic or potentially economic REE deposits have been found in (a) carbonatites, (b) peralkaline igneous systems, (c) magmatic magnetite-hematite bodies, (d) iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits, (e) xenotime-monazite accumulations in mafic gneiss, (f) ion-absorption clay deposits, and (g) monazite-xenotime-bearing placer deposits. Carbonatites have been the world’s main source for the light REEs since the 1960s. Ion-adsorption clay deposits in southern China are the world’s primary source of the heavy REEs. Monazite-bearing placer deposits were important sources of REEs before the mid-1960s and may be again in the future. In recent years, REEs have been produced from large carbonatite bodies mined at the Mountain Pass deposit in California and, in China, at the Bayan Obo deposit in Nei Mongol Autonomous Region, the Maoniuping deposit in Sichuan Province, the Daluxiang deposit in Sichuan Province, and the Weishan deposit in Anhui Province. Alkaline igneous complexes have recently been targeted for exploration because of their enrichments in the heavy REEs.
Information relevant to the environmental aspects of REE mining is limited. Little is known about the aquatic toxicity of REEs. The United States lacks drinking water standards for REEs. The concentrations of REEs in environmental media are influenced by their low abundances in crustal rocks and their limited solubility in most groundwaters and surface waters. The scarcity of sulfide minerals, including pyrite, minimizes or eliminates concerns about acid-mine drainage for carbonatite-hosted deposits and alkaline-intrusion-related REE deposits. For now, insights into environmental responses of REE mine wastes must rely on predictive models.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1802O","isbn":"978-1-4113-3991-0","usgsCitation":"Van Gosen, B.S., Verplanck, P.L., Seal, R.R., II, Long, K.R., and Gambogi, Joseph, 2017, Rare-earth elements, chap. O of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. O1–O31, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802O.","productDescription":"viii, 31 p.","numberOfPages":"44","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-050900","costCenters":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":334627,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/o/pp1802o.pdf","text":"Report","size":"4.50 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"PP 1802 O"},{"id":334626,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/o/coverthb1.jpg"}],"contact":"Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
The platinum-group elements (PGEs)—platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium—are metals that have similar physical and chemical properties and tend to occur together in nature. PGEs are indispensable to many industrial applications but are mined in only a few places. The availability and accessibility of PGEs could be disrupted by economic, environmental, political, and social events. The United States net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption is about 90 percent.
PGEs have many industrial applications. They are used in catalytic converters to reduce carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and nitrous oxide emissions in automobile exhaust. The chemical industry requires platinum or platinum-rhodium alloys to manufacture nitric oxide, which is the raw material used to manufacture explosives, fertilizers, and nitric acid. In the petrochemical industry, platinum-supported catalysts are needed to refine crude oil and to produce aromatic compounds and high-octane gasoline. Alloys of PGEs are exceptionally hard and durable, making them the best known coating for industrial crucibles used in the manufacture of chemicals and synthetic materials. PGEs are used by the glass manufacturing industry in the production of fiberglass and flat-panel and liquid crystal displays. In the electronics industry, PGEs are used in computer hard disks, hybridized integrated circuits, and multilayer ceramic capacitors.
Aside from their industrial applications, PGEs are used in such other fields as health, consumer goods, and finance. Platinum, for example, is used in medical implants, such as pacemakers, and PGEs are used in cancer-fighting drugs. Platinum alloys are an ideal choice for jewelry because of their white color, strength, and resistance to tarnish. Platinum, palladium, and rhodium in the form of coins and bars are also used as investment commodities, and various financial instruments based on the value of these PGEs are traded on major exchanges.
PGEs are among the rarest metals; Earth’s upper crust contains only about 0.0005 part per million (ppm) platinum. Today, the average grade of PGEs in ores that are mined primarily for their PGE concentrations varies from 5 to 15 ppm, although the concentration of PGEs in hand-picked ore specimens may range from tens to hundreds of parts per million.
More than 100 different minerals have one of the PGEs as an essential component. PGE minerals occur as native metals. They also occur as compounds with other transition metals (copper, iron, mercury, nickel, and silver), post-transition metals (bismuth, lead, and tin), metalloids (antimony, arsenic, and tellurium), and nonmetals (selenium and sulfur).
From 1900 to 2011, approximately 14,200 metric tons of PGEs was produced, and roughly 95 percent of that production (13,500 metric tons) took place between 1960 and 2011. The breakdown of production by country shows that, since 1900, about 90 percent of the production came from South Africa and Russia. The secondary supply of platinum, palladium, and rhodium is obtained through the recycling of catalytic converters from end-of-life vehicles, jewelry, and electronic equipment. Recycled platinum, palladium, and rhodium provide a significant proportion of the world’s total supply; these secondary sources are sufficient to close the gap between world mine production and consumption.
Exploration and mining companies report resources of about 104,000 metric tons of PGEs (including minor amounts of gold) in mineral deposits around the world that could be developed. For PGEs, almost all the reported production and identified resources are associated with deposits in three geologic features—the Bushveld Complex, which is a layered mafic-to-ultramafic intrusion in South Africa; the Great Dyke, which is a layered mafic-to-ultramafic intrusion in Zimbabwe; and sill-like intrusions associated with flood basalts in the Noril’sk-Talnakh area of Russia.
The metallic forms of PGEs are generally considered to be inert. PGEs pose a risk to human health only in cases where individuals are occupationally exposed to synthetic PGE compounds, especially workers in precious-metal refineries. In the natural environment, background PGE concentrations are low in water, sediment, soil, and plants. Anthropogenic sources of PGEs in the environment include catalytic converters used in modern automobiles, platinum-based chemotherapy drugs, and smelter emissions.
The abundance of sulfide minerals defines the environmental and geologic characteristics of PGE-enriched magmatic sulfide deposits; those deposits with the highest amount of sulfide minerals could have the highest environmental impact. Acid rock drainage from reef-type and contact-type deposits is unlikely because the ores and their host rocks contain low proportions of sulfide minerals. For some conduit-type orebodies with massive ores, mineral-processing techniques separate and produce concentrates of copper-, iron-, and nickel-bearing sulfide minerals; those with copper and nickel are processed to extract metal, but the iron-sulfide minerals, mainly pyrrhotite, are discarded as waste. This results in waste material with a high acid-generating potential.
The most significant primary source of PGEs in the United States is a deposit in the Stillwater Complex, which is a layered igneous intrusion in Montana. Approximately 305 metric tons of platinum and palladium have been mined from the Stillwater Complex deposit since 1986. Exploration and development drilling indicate that another 2,200 metric tons are present. Mining has progressed to depths of 1,800 meters below the surface, but the bottom of the ore deposit has not been reached; geologic estimates suggest that another 1,000 to 6,200 metric tons of PGEs could be present at depth. In the future, PGEs may be mined from deposits found near the base of the Duluth Complex, which is a group of igneous intrusions in Minnesota.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1802N","isbn":"978-1-4113-3991-0","usgsCitation":"Zientek, M.L., Loferski, P.J., Parks, H.L., Schulte, R.F., and Seal, R.R., II, 2017, Platinum-group elements, chap. N of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. N1–N91, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802N.","productDescription":"ix, 91 p.","numberOfPages":"106","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-052035","costCenters":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":334214,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/n/coverthb1.jpg"},{"id":334215,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/n/pp1802n.pdf","text":"Report","size":"33.4 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"PP 1802 N"}],"contact":"Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Tellurium (Te) is a very rare element that averages only 3 parts per billion in Earth’s upper crust. It shows a close association with gold and may be present in orebodies of most gold deposit types at levels of tens to hundreds of parts per million. In large-tonnage mineral deposits, such as porphyry copper and seafloor volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, sulfide minerals may contain hundreds of parts per million tellurium, although the orebodies likely have overall concentrations of 0.1 to 1.0 parts per million tellurium. Tellurium is presently recovered as a primary ore from only two districts in the world; these are the gold-tellurium epithermal vein deposits located adjacent to one another at Dashuigou and Majiagou (Sichuan Province) in southwestern China, and the epithermal-like mineralization at the Kankberg deposit in the Skellefteå VMS district of Västerbotten County, Sweden. Combined, these two groups of deposits account for about 15 percent (about 70 metric tons) of the annual global production of between 450 and 470 metric tons of tellurium. Most of the world’s tellurium, however, is produced as a byproduct of the mining of porphyry copper deposits. These deposits typically yield concentrations of 1 to 4 percent tellurium in the anode slimes recovered during copper refining. Present production of tellurium from the United States is solely from the anode slimes at ASARCO LLC’s copper refinery in Amarillo, Texas, and may total about 50 metric tons per year. The main uses of tellurium are in photovoltaic solar cells and as an additive to copper, lead, and steel alloys in various types of machinery. The environmental data available regarding the mining of tellurium are limited; most concerns to date have focused on the more-abundant metals present in the large-tonnage deposits from which tellurium is recovered as a byproduct. Global reserves of tellurium are estimated to be 24,000 metric tons, based on the amount of tellurium likely contained in global copper reserves and on a 50 percent recovery rate from refinery anode slimes during the commonly used electrolytic process, also known as solvent extraction-electrolytic refining. If the more economical solvent-leach process—a process that does not recover tellurium—is increasingly used in the future to recover lower grades of copper from porphyry and other large-tonnage deposits, then additional high-grade tellurium-rich gold deposits may become new primary sources for tellurium, particularly epithermal vein deposits associated with alkaline magmatism.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1802R","isbn":"978-1-4113-3991-0","usgsCitation":"Goldfarb, R.J., Berger, B.R., George, M.W., and Seal, R.R., II, 2017, Tellurium, chap. R of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. R1–R27, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802R.","productDescription":"viii, 27 p.","numberOfPages":"40","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-069567","costCenters":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":334839,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/r/coverthb1.jpg"},{"id":334840,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/r/pp1802r.pdf","text":"Report","size":"3.91 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"PP 1802 R"}],"contact":"Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Tin (Sn) is one of the first metals to be used by humans. Almost without exception, tin is used as an alloy. Because of its hardening effect on copper, tin was used in bronze implements as early as 3500 B.C. The major uses of tin today are for cans and containers, construction materials, transportation materials, and solder. The predominant ore mineral of tin, by far, is cassiterite (SnO2).
In 2015, the world’s total estimated mine production of tin was 289,000 metric tons of contained tin. Total world reserves at the end of 2016 were estimated to be 4,700,000 metric tons. China held about 24 percent of the world’s tin reserves and accounted for 38 percent of the world’s 2015 production of tin.
The proportion of scrap used in tin production is between 10 and 25 percent. Unlike many metals, tin recycling is relatively efficient, and the fraction of tin in discarded products that get recycled is greater than 50 percent.
Only about 20 percent of the world’s identified tin resources occur as primary hydrothermal hard-rock veins, or lodes. These lodes contain predominantly high-temperature minerals and almost invariably occur in close association with silicic, peraluminous granites. About 80 percent of the world’s identified tin resources occur as unconsolidated secondary or placer deposits in riverbeds and valleys or on the sea floor. The largest concentration of both onshore and offshore placers is in the extensive tin belt of Southeast Asia, which stretches from China in the north, through Thailand, Burma (also referred to as Myanmar), and Malaysia, to the islands of Indonesia in the south. Furthermore, tin placers are almost always found closely allied to the granites from which they originate. Other countries with significant tin resources are Australia, Bolivia, and Brazil.
Most hydrothermal tin deposits belong to what can be thought of as a superclass of porphyry-greisen deposits. The hydrothermal tin deposits are all characterized by a close spatial, temporal, and genetic association with highly differentiated, peraluminous porphyritic granite intrusions. The intrusions form pegmatites; disseminated ore; parallel or subparallel, greisen-bordered sheeted veins that either cross-cut the intrusion or are peripheral to it; skarns; and (or) limestone replacements that contain different amounts of cassiterite, molybdenite, and wolframite.
The tectonic settings of tin-bearing granites are relatively well understood and of limited variety. Tin and tungsten deposits and their associated igneous rocks are found mainly in continental settings.
Historically, prospecting for tin has been carried out by the time-honored methods of panning, drilling, trenching, and assaying. Geophysical and geochemical surveys have been employed to cover large areas more rapidly, isolating areas of possible tin deposits so that drilling can be more effective and less costly. Elemental concentrations and relationships of the lithophile elements, especially barium, lithium, niobium, potassium, rubidium, and zirconium, are the most reliable chemical indicators of ore-forming processes and tin-bearing potential.
The average human diet includes an intake of about 10 milligrams per day of tin. Ingestion of tin in significantly greater amounts than 10 milligrams per day may lead to a stomach ache, anemia, and liver and kidney problems. Exposure to some organo-tin compounds can interfere with brain and nervous system function and, in severe cases, can cause death. Extended inhalation of tin oxide—an issue mainly for those people who work in the tin industry—results in a higher potential to develop stannosis, which is a mild disease of the lungs caused by the inhalation of tin-bearing dust. Inorganic tin is poorly absorbed by the body, and no evidence exists for the carcinogenicity of metallic tin and tin compounds in humans.
Most placer tin deposits are mined by open pit and (or) dredging methods. Mining of alluvial placers in modern streambeds and riverbeds is likely to increase the amount of sediment delivered downstream. This, combined with potential diversion of rivers and streams, may negatively affect downstream ecosystems. Many of the placer deposits located in Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand are located offshore. Most offshore placer tin deposits are mined by dredging methods, which have the potential to negatively affect benthic, midwater, and pelagic ecosystems.
In a congressionally mandated U.S. Department of Defense study of strategic minerals published in 2013, tin has the greatest shortfall amount (insufficient supply to meet demand) at \\$416 million; this amount is more than twice that of antimony ($182 million), which is the strategic mineral with the next largest shortfall amount (U.S. Department of Defense, 2013). The United States imported 75 percent of its tin supply in 2015. During the period 2012–15, these imports were from, in descending order of amount imported, Peru, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Bolivia.
A promising advancement concerning research into the origin of tin deposits is the recent development of a reliable method of analyzing tin isotopes in cassiterite. Although the mechanism of transport and deposition of tin is fairly well understood, the means by which tin is incorporated into the parent magma at the points of magma generation and ascent needs further investigation.
Tin metallogenic provinces worldwide are well known. Consequently, any undiscovered tin deposits will likely be spatially close to known deposits or extensions of the same.
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U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Germanium and indium are two important elements used in electronics devices, flat-panel display screens, light-emitting diodes, night vision devices, optical fiber, optical lens systems, and solar power arrays. Germanium and indium are treated together in this chapter because they have similar technological uses and because both are recovered as byproducts, mainly from copper and zinc sulfides.
The world’s total production of germanium in 2011 was estimated to be 118 metric tons. This total comprised germanium recovered from zinc concentrates, from fly ash residues from coal burning, and from recycled material. Worldwide, primary germanium was recovered in Canada from zinc concentrates shipped from the United States; in China from zinc residues and coal from multiple sources in China and elsewhere; in Finland from zinc concentrates from the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and in Russia from coal.
World production of indium metal was estimated to be about 723 metric tons in 2011; more than one-half of the total was produced in China. Other leading producers included Belgium, Canada, Japan, and the Republic of Korea. These five countries accounted for nearly 95 percent of primary indium production.
Deposit types that contain significant amounts of germanium include volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits, sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits, Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) lead-zinc deposits (including Irish-type zinc-lead deposits), Kipushi-type zinc-lead-copper replacement bodies in carbonate rocks, and coal deposits.
More than one-half of the byproduct indium in the world is produced in southern China from VMS and SEDEX deposits, and much of the remainder is produced from zinc concentrates from MVT deposits. The Laochang deposit in Yunnan Province, China, and the VMS deposits of the Murchison greenstone belt in Limpopo Province, South Africa, provide excellent examples of indium-enriched deposits. The SEDEX deposits at Bainiuchang, China (located in southeastern Yunnan Province), and the Dabaoshan SEDEX deposit (located in the Nanling region of China) contain indium-enriched sphalerite. Another major potential source of indium occurs in the polymetallic tin-tungsten belt in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes Mountains of Bolivia. Deposits there occur as dense arrays of narrow, elongate, indium-enriched tin oxide-polymetallic sulfide veins in volcanic rocks and porphyry stocks.
Information about the behavior of germanium and indium in the environment is limited. In surface weathering environments, germanium and indium may dissolve from host minerals and form complexes with chloride, fluoride, hydroxide, organic matter, phosphate, or sulfate compounds. The tendency for germanium and indium to be dissolved and transported largely depends upon the pH and temperature of the weathering solutions. Because both elements are commonly concentrated in sulfide minerals, they can be expected to be relatively mobile in acid mine drainage where oxidative dissolution of sulfide minerals releases metals and sulfuric acid, resulting in acidic pH values that allow higher concentrations of metals to be dissolved into solution.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1802I","isbn":"978-1-4113-3991-0","usgsCitation":"Shanks, W.C.P., III, Kimball, B.E., Tolcin, A.C., and Guberman, D.E., 2017, Germanium and indium, chap. I of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. I1–I27, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802I.","productDescription":"viii, 27 p.","numberOfPages":"39","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-052088","costCenters":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":334573,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/i/coverthb1.jpg"},{"id":334574,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/i/pp1802i.pdf","text":"Report","size":"1.84 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"PP 1802 I"}],"contact":"Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth’s continental crust; its estimated average crustal abundance is less than 1 part per billion. Rhenium is a metal that has an extremely high melting point and a heat-stable crystalline structure. More than 80 percent of the rhenium consumed in the world is used in high-temperature superalloys, especially those used to make turbine blades for jet aircraft engines. Rhenium’s other major application is in platinum-rhenium catalysts used in petroleum refining.
Rhenium rarely occurs as a native element or as its own sulfide mineral; most rhenium is present as a substitute for molybdenum in molybdenite. Annual world mine production of rhenium is about 50 metric tons. Nearly all primary rhenium production (that is, rhenium produced by mining rather than through recycling) is as a byproduct of copper mining, and about 80 percent of the rhenium obtained through mining is recovered from the flue dust produced during the roasting of molybdenite concentrates from porphyry copper deposits. Molybdenite in porphyry copper deposits can contain hundreds to several thousand grams per metric ton of rhenium, although the estimated rhenium grades of these deposits range from less than 0.1 gram per metric ton to about 0.6 gram per metric ton.
Continental-arc porphyry copper-(molybdenum-gold) deposits supply most of the world’s rhenium production and have large inferred rhenium resources. Porphyry copper mines in Chile account for about 55 percent of the world’s mine production of rhenium; rhenium is also recovered from porphyry copper deposits in the United States, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Peru, Russia, and Uzbekistan. Sediment-hosted strata-bound copper deposits in Kazakhstan (of the sandstone type) and in Poland (of the reduced-facies, or Kupferschiefer, type) account for most other rhenium produced by mining. These types of deposits also have large amounts of identified rhenium resources. The future supply of rhenium is likely to depend largely on the capacity of the specialized processing facilities needed to recover rhenium from molybdenite concentrates.
The environmental consequences of rhenium recovery are closely linked to the consequences of mining large porphyry copper and strata-bound copper deposits; no additional environmental impact from recovery of rhenium from these deposits has been identified. No information is available regarding the potential toxic effects of rhenium on humans, partly because of the low natural abundance of rhenium.
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U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Selenium (Se) was discovered in 1817 in pyrite from copper mines in Sweden. It is a trace element in Earth’s crust, with an abundance of three to seven orders of magnitude less than the major rock-forming elements. Commercial use of selenium began in the United States in 1910, when it was used as a pigment for paints, ceramic glazes, and red glass. Since that time, it has had many other economic uses—notably, in the 1930s and 1940s, when it was used in rectifiers (which change alternating current to direct current), and in the 1960s, when it began to be used in the liner of photocopier drums. In the 21st century, other compounds have replaced selenium in these older products; modern uses for selenium include energy-efficient windows that limit heat transfer and thin-film photovoltaic cells that convert solar energy into electricity.
In Earth’s crust, selenium is found as selenide minerals, selenate and selenite salts, and as substitution for sulfur in sulfide minerals. It is the sulfide minerals, most commonly those in porphyry copper deposits, that provide the bulk of the selenium produced for the international commodity market. Selenium is obtained as a byproduct of copper refining and recovered from the anode slimes generated in electrolytic production of copper. Because of this, the countries that have the largest resources and (or) reserves of copper also have the largest resources and (or) reserves of selenium.
Because selenium occurs naturally in Earth’s crust, its presence in air, water, and soil results from both geologic reactions and human activity. Selenium is found concentrated naturally in soils that overlie bedrock with high selenium concentrations. Selenium mining, processing, use in industrial and agricultural applications, and disposal may all contribute selenium to the environment. A well-known case of selenium contamination from agricultural practices was discovered in 1983 in the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in California. There, waters draining from agricultural fields created wetlands with high concentrations of dissolved selenium in the water. The selenium was taken up by aquatic wildlife and caused massive numbers of embryonic deformities and deaths.
Regulatory agencies have since worked to safeguard ecological and human health by creating environmental exposure guidelines based upon selenium concentrations in water and in fish tissue. Any attempt to regulate selenium concentrations requires a delicate balance because selenium occurs naturally and is also a vital nutrient for the health of wildlife, domestic stock, and humans. Selenium is commonly added as a vitamin to animal feed, and in some regions of the United States and the world, it is added as an amendment to soils for uptake by agricultural crops.
The important role of selenium in economic products, energy supply, agriculture, and health will continue for well into the future. The challenge to society is to balance the benefits of selenium use with the environmental consequences of its extraction. Increased understanding of the elemental cycle of selenium in the earth may lead to new (or unconventional) sources of selenium, the discovery of new methods of extraction, and new technologies for minimizing the transfer of selenium from rock to biota, so to protect environmental and human health.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1802Q","isbn":"978-1-4113-3991-0","usgsCitation":"Stillings, L.L., 2017, Selenium, chap. Q of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. Q1–Q55, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802Q.","productDescription":"viii, 55 p.","numberOfPages":"68","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-059321","costCenters":[{"id":245,"text":"Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":335230,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/q/coverthb.jpg"},{"id":335231,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/q/pp1802q.pdf","text":"Report","size":"9.55 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"PP 1802 Q"}],"contact":"Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Beryllium is a mineral commodity that is used in a variety of industries to make products that are essential for the smooth functioning of a modern society. Two minerals, bertrandite (which is supplied domestically) and beryl (which is currently supplied solely by imports), are necessary to ensure a stable supply of high-purity beryllium metal, alloys, and metal-matrix composites and beryllium oxide ceramics. Although bertrandite is the source mineral for more than 90 percent of the beryllium produced globally, industrial beryl is critical for the production of the very high purity beryllium metal needed for some strategic applications. The current sole domestic source of beryllium is bertrandite ore from the Spor Mountain deposit in Utah; beryl is imported mainly from Brazil, China, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Portugal. High-purity beryllium metal is classified as a strategic and critical material by the Strategic Materials Protection Board of the U.S. Department of Defense because it is used in products that are vital to national security. Beryllium is maintained in the U.S. stockpile of strategic materials in the form of hot-pressed beryllium metal powder.
Because of its unique chemical properties, beryllium is indispensable for many important industrial products used in the aerospace, computer, defense, medical, nuclear, and telecommunications industries. For example, high-performance alloys of beryllium are used in many specialized, high-technology electronics applications, as they are energy efficient and can be used to fabricate miniaturized components. Beryllium-copper alloys are used as contacts and connectors, switches, relays, and shielding for everything from cell phones to thermostats, and beryllium-nickel alloys excel in producing wear-resistant and shape-retaining high-temperature springs. Beryllium metal composites, which combine the fabrication ability of aluminum with the thermal conductivity and highly elastic modulus of beryllium, are ideal for producing aircraft and satellite structural components that have a high stiffness-to-weight ratio and low surface vibration. Beryllium oxide ceramics are used in a wide range of applications, including missile guidance systems, radar applications, and cell phone transmitters, and they are critical to medical technologies, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, medical lasers, and portable defibrillators.
The United States is expected to remain self-sufficient with respect to most of its beryllium requirements, based on information available at the time this chapter was prepared (2013). The United States is one of only three countries that currently process beryllium ores and concentrate them into beryllium products, and these three countries supply most of the rest of the world with these products. Exploration for new deposits in the United States is limited because domestic beryllium production is dominated by a single producer that effectively controls the domestic beryllium market, which is relatively small and specialized, and the market cannot readily accommodate new competition on the raw material supply side.
","largerWorkType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"largerWorkTitle":"Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1802E","isbn":"978-1-4113-3991-0","usgsCitation":"Foley, N.K., Jaskula, B.W., Piatak, N.M., and Schulte, R.F., 2017, Beryllium, chap. E of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. E1–E32, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802E.","productDescription":"viii, 32 p.","numberOfPages":"44","onlineOnly":"N","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-045146","costCenters":[{"id":245,"text":"Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":334565,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/e/pp1802e.pdf","text":"Report","size":"15.7 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"Professional Paper 1802 E"},{"id":334564,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/e/coverthb1.jpg"}],"contact":"Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
https://minerals.usgs.gov
Cobalt (Co) is a potentially critical mineral. The vast majority of cobalt is a byproduct of copper and (or) nickel production. Cobalt is increasingly used in magnets and rechargeable batteries. More than 50 percent of primary cobalt production is from the Central African Copperbelt. The Central African Copperbelt is the only sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper district that contains significant cobalt. Its presence may indicate significant mafic-ultramafic rocks in the local basement. The balance of primary cobalt production is from magmatic nickel-copper and nickel laterite deposits. Cobalt is present in several carbonate-hosted lead-zinc and copper districts. It is also variably present in Besshi-type volcanogenic massive sulfide and siliciclastic sedimentary rock-hosted deposits in back arc and rift environments associated with mafic-ultramafic rocks. Metasedimentary cobalt-copper-gold deposits (such as Blackbird, Idaho), iron oxide-copper-gold deposits, and the five-element vein deposits (such as Cobalt, Ontario) contain different amounts of cobalt. None of these deposit types show direct links to mafic-ultramafic rocks; the deposits may result from crustal-scale hydrothermal systems capable of leaching and transporting cobalt from great depths. Hydrothermal deposits associated with ultramafic rocks, typified by the Bou Azzer district of Morocco, represent another type of primary cobalt deposit.
In the United States, exploration for cobalt deposits may focus on magmatic nickel-copper deposits in the Archean and Proterozoic rocks of the Midwest and the east coast (Pennsylvania) and younger mafic rocks in southeastern and southern Alaska; also, possibly basement rocks in southeastern Missouri. Other potential exploration targets include—
Office of the Associate Director for Energy and Minerals
U.S. Geological Survey
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
MS 102
Reston, VA 20192
Trace-metal concentrations in sediment and in the clam Macoma petalum (formerly reported as Macoma balthica), clam reproductive activity, and benthic macroinvertebrate community structure were investigated in a mudflat 1 kilometer south of the discharge of the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant (PARWQCP) in south San Francisco Bay, Calif. This report includes the data collected by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists for the period January 2014 to December 2016. These append to long-term datasets extending back to 1974. A major focus of the report is an integrated description of the 2016 data within the context of the longer, multi-decadal dataset. This dataset supports the City of Palo Alto’s Near-Field Receiving Water Monitoring Program, initiated in 1994.
Significant reductions in silver and copper concentrations in sediment and M. petalum occurred at the site in the 1980s following the implementation by PARWQCP of advanced wastewater treatment and source control measures. Since the 1990s, concentrations of these elements appear to have stabilized at concentrations somewhat above (silver) or near (copper) regional background concentrations Data for other metals, including chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn), have been collected since 1994. Over this period, concentrations of these elements have remained relatively constant, aside from seasonal variation that is common to all elements. In 2016, concentrations of silver and copper in M. petalum varied seasonally in response to a combination of site-specific metal exposures and annual growth and reproduction, as reported previously. Seasonal patterns for other elements, including Cr, Ni, Zn, Hg, and Se, were generally similar in timing and magnitude as those for Ag and Cu. This record suggests that legacy contamination and regional-scale factors now largely control sedimentary and bioavailable concentrations of silver and copper, as well as other elements of regulatory interest, at the Palo Alto site.
Analyses of the benthic community structure of a mudflat in south San Francisco Bay over a 40-year period show that changes in the community have occurred concurrent with reduced concentrations of metals in the sediment and in the tissues of the biosentinel clam, M. petalum, from the same area. Analysis of M. petalum shows increases in reproductive activity concurrent with the decline in metal concentrations in the tissues of this organism. Reproductive activity is presently stable (2016), with almost all animals initiating reproduction in the fall and spawning the following spring. The entire infaunal community has shifted from being dominated by several opportunistic species to a community where the species are more similar in abundance, a pattern that indicates a more stable community that is subjected to fewer stressors. In addition, two of the opportunistic species (Ampelisca abdita and Streblospio benedicti) that brood their young and live on the surface of the sediment in tubes have shown a continual decline in dominance coincident with the decline in metals; both species had short-lived rebounds in abundance in 2008, 2009, and 2010 and showed signs of increasing abundance in 2016. Heteromastus filiformis (a subsurface polychaete worm that lives in the sediment, consumes sediment and organic particles residing in the sediment, and reproduces by laying its eggs on or in the sediment) showed a concurrent increase in dominance and, in the last several years before 2008, showed a stable population. H. filiformis abundance increased slightly in 2011–2012 and returned to pre-2011 numbers in 2016. An unidentified disturbance occurred on the mudflat in early 2008 that resulted in the loss of the benthic animals, except for deep-dwelling animals like Macoma petalum. However, within two months of this event animals returned to the mudflat. The resilience of the community suggested that the disturbance was not due to a persistent toxin or anoxia. The reproductive mode of most species present in 2016 is reflective of species that were available either as pelagic larvae or as mobile adults. Although oviparous species were lower in number in this group, the authors hypothesize that these species will return slowly as more species move back into the area. The use of functional ecology was highlighted in the 2016 benthic community data, which showed that the animals that have now returned to the mudflat are those that can respond successfully to a physical, nontoxic disturbance. Today, community data show a mix of species that consume the sediment, or filter feed, have pelagic larvae that must survive landing on the sediment, and those that brood their young. USGS scientists view the 2008 disturbance event as a response by the infaunal community to an episodic natural stressor (possibly sediment accretion or a pulse of freshwater), in contrast to the long-term recovery from metal contamination. We will compare this recovery to the long-term recovery observed after the 1970s when the decline in sediment pollutants was the dominating factor.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/ofr20171135","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the City of Palo Alto, California","usgsCitation":"Cain, D.J., Thompson, J.K., Parchaso, F., Pearson, S., Stewart, R., Turner, M., Barasch, D., and Luoma, S.N., 2017, Near-field receiving water monitoring of trace metals and a benthic community near the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant in south San Francisco Bay, California; 2016: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2017–1135, 75 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20171135.","productDescription":"vi, 75 p.","numberOfPages":"82","onlineOnly":"Y","ipdsId":"IP-088104","costCenters":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":416202,"rank":7,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20231017","text":"Open-File Report 2023-1017","linkHelpText":"- Near-Field Receiving-Water Monitoring of Trace Metals and a Benthic Community Near the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant in South San Francisco Bay, California—2020"},{"id":416201,"rank":6,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20211079","text":"Open-File Report 2021-1079","linkHelpText":"- Near-Field Receiving-Water Monitoring of Trace Metals and a Benthic Community Near the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant in South San Francisco Bay, California—2019"},{"id":416200,"rank":5,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20191084","text":"Open-File Report 2019-1084","linkHelpText":"- Near-Field Receiving-Water Monitoring of Trace Metals and a Benthic Community Near the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant in South San Francisco Bay, California—2018"},{"id":416199,"rank":4,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181107","text":"Open-File Report 2018-1107","linkHelpText":"- Near-field receiving-water monitoring of trace metals and a benthic community near the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant in south San Francisco Bay, California—2017"},{"id":416198,"rank":3,"type":{"id":22,"text":"Related Work"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20161118","text":"Open-File Report 2016-1118","linkHelpText":"- Near-field receiving water monitoring of trace metals and a benthic community near the Palo Alto Regional Water Quality Control Plant in south San Francisco Bay, California; 2015"},{"id":347750,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1135/coverthb_.jpg"},{"id":347751,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1135/ofr.20171135.pdf","text":"Report","size":"4.1 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"OFR 2017-1135"}],"country":"United States","state":"California","city":"Palo Alto","otherGeospatial":"south San Francisco bay","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -122.16590881347656,\n 37.398528132728615\n ],\n [\n -121.91184997558595,\n 37.398528132728615\n ],\n [\n -121.91184997558595,\n 37.54566616715801\n ],\n [\n -122.16590881347656,\n 37.54566616715801\n ],\n [\n -122.16590881347656,\n 37.398528132728615\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","contact":"NRP staff
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345 Middlefield Road, MS-435
Menlo Park, CA 94025
The geologic maps and cross sections presented in this report are redrafted and modified versions of the Geologic map and map of useful minerals of the Dusar area (scale 1:50,000) and Geologic sketch map of the Dusar and Namak-sory ore occurrences (scale 1:10,000), located in the Herat Province, Afghanistan. The original maps and cross sections are contained in unpublished Soviet report no. 0290 (Tarasenko and others, 1973) prepared in cooperation with the Ministry of Mines and Industries of the Royal Government of Afghanistan, in Kabul during 1973 under contract no. 50728. The redrafted maps and cross sections (modified from Tarasenko and others, 1973) illustrate the geological structure and mineral occurrences of the Dusar copper-gold-silver-lead-zinc prospect area of western Afghanistan, located within the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest (AOI), Herat Province, Afghanistan.
Mineralization in the Dusar area is hosted within Early Jurassic to Early Cretaceous stratified volcanic and sedimentary rocks associated with numerous diabase and gabbro-diabase intrusive bodies and is generally near a major northeast-trending system of faults and quartz veins. Host rocks consist of quartz keratophyre and quartz-feldspar porphyry, with layers of schist, phyllite, and quartz-chlorite and chlorite-sericite slate; and limestone and shale, with schist and carbonate-chlorite and chlorite slate. Known mineralization includes an extensive quartz vein system, shown on the map as the “northern occurrence,” as well as the Dusar and Namak-sory gossan zones, interpreted to have formed from remnant pyrite mineralization. The veins of the northern occurrence and their altered host rocks are known to contain anomalous to economic concentrations of precious and base metals, with concentrations locally in excess of 2 parts per million gold, 100 parts per million silver, 5 percent copper, and 1 percent lead. These veins occur in swarms, and are hosted along structures that are approximately concordant with the plane of the metamorphic fabric. The veins consist mostly of quartz, with minor carbonate and sulfide minerals, and display weak alteration halos along their margins. The gossans are locally anomalous in these metals, but their size and extent makes them attractive exploration targets for potential massive sulfide mineralization.
The Dusar gossan zone is a massive, ochreous, and siliceous limonitic rock, approximately 2,200 meters long, 30 to 250 meters wide, and 2.0 to 7.2 meters thick. Drilling below the Dusar gossan intersected a siliceous, sericitic, and limonitic rock underlain by quartz keratophyre with abundant disseminated pyrite. Mineralized sections grade 0.06 weight percent copper and up to 0.05 weight percent zinc. The Namak-sory gossan zone contains a similar deposit with anomalous concentrations of copper, zinc, and gold.
The redrafted maps and cross sections reproduce the topology of rock units, contacts, and faults of the original Soviet maps and cross sections, and include minor modifications based on examination of the originals and observations made during two brief field visits by USGS staff in August, 2010, and June, 2013.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/ofr20171126","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Afghan Geological Survey under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Defense","usgsCitation":"Tucker, R.D., Stettner, W.R., Masonic, L.M., and Bogdanow, A.K., comps., 2017, Geologic map of the Dusar area, Herat Province, Afghanistan; Modified from the 1973 original map compilations of V.I. Tarasenko and others: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2017–1126, 1 sheet, scales 1:50,000 and 1:10,000, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20171126.","productDescription":"57.56 x 39.83 inches","onlineOnly":"Y","additionalOnlineFiles":"N","ipdsId":"IP-050066","costCenters":[{"id":243,"text":"Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":346482,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1126/coverthb.jpg"},{"id":346483,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1126/ofr20171126.pdf","text":"Report","size":"786 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"OF 2017-1126"}],"country":"Afghanistan","otherGeospatial":"Dusar Area, Herat Province","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n 61.1,\n 33.5\n ],\n [\n 61.5,\n 33.5\n ],\n [\n 61.5,\n 34.020794936018724\n ],\n [\n 61.1,\n 34.020794936018724\n ],\n [\n 61.1,\n 33.5\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","contact":"Office of International Programs
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917 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
From 2007 through 2015, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Colorado Springs City Engineering, conducted a study in the Fountain and Monument Creek watersheds, Colorado, to characterize surface-water quality and suspended-sediment conditions for three different streamflow regimes with an emphasis on characterizing water quality during storm runoff. Data collected during this study were used to evaluate the effects of stormflows and wastewater-treatment effluent discharge on Fountain and Monument Creeks in the Colorado Springs, Colorado, area. Water-quality samples were collected at 2 sites on Upper Fountain Creek, 2 sites on Monument Creek, 3 sites on Lower Fountain Creek, and 13 tributary sites during 3 flow regimes: cold-season flow (November–April), warm-season flow (May–October), and stormflow from 2007 through 2015. During 2015, additional samples were collected and analyzed for Escherichia coli (E. coli) during dry weather conditions at 41 sites, located in E. coli impaired stream reaches, to help identify source areas and scope of the impairment.
Concentrations of E. coli, total arsenic, and dissolved copper, selenium, and zinc in surface-water samples were compared to Colorado in-stream standards. Stormflow concentrations of E. coli frequently exceeded the recreational use standard of 126 colonies per 100 milliliters at main-stem and tributary sites by more than an order of magnitude. Even though median E. coli concentrations in warm-season flow samples were lower than median concentrations in storm-flow samples, the water quality standard for E. coli was still exceeded at most main-stem sites and many tributary sites during warm-season flows. Six samples (three warm-season flow and three stormflow samples) collected from Upper Fountain Creek, upstream from the confluence of Monument Creek, and two stormflow samples collected from Lower Fountain Creek, downstream from the confluence with Monument Creek, exceeded the acute water-quality standard for total arsenic of 50 micrograms per liter. All concentrations of dissolved copper, selenium, and zinc measured in samples were below the water-quality standard.
Concentrations of dissolved nitrate plus nitrite generally increased from upstream to downstream during all flow periods. The largest downstream increase in dissolved nitrate plus nitrite concentration was measured between sites 07103970 and 07104905 on Monument Creek. All but one tributary that drain into Monument Creek between the two sites had higher median nitrate plus nitrite concentrations than the nearest upstream site on Monument Creek, site 07103970 (MoCr_Woodmen). Increases in the concentration of dissolved nitrate plus nitrite were also evident below wastewater treatment plants located on Fountain Creek.
Most stormflow concentrations of dissolved trace elements were smaller than concentrations from cold-season flow or warm-season samples. However, median concentrations of total arsenic, lead, manganese, nickel, and zinc generally were much larger during periods of stormflow than during cold-season flow or warm-season fl. Median concentrations of total arsenic, total copper, total lead, dissolved and total manganese, total nickel, dissolved and total selenium, and dissolved and total zinc concentrations increased from 1.5 to 28.5 times from site 07103700 (FoCr_Manitou) to 07103707 (FoCr_8th) during cold-season and warm-season flows, indicating a large source of trace elements between these two sites. Both of these sites are located on Fountain Creek, upstream from the confluence with Monument Creek.
Median suspended-sediment concentrations and median suspended-sediment loads increased in the downstream direction during all streamflow regimes between Monument Creek sites 07103970 (MoCr_Woodmen) and 07104905 (MoCr_Bijou); however, statistically significant increase (p-value less than 0.05) were only present during warm-season flow and stormflow. Significant increases in median suspended sediment concentrations were measured during cold-season flow and warm-season flow between Upper Fountain Creek site 07103707 (FoCr_8th) and Lower Fountain Creek site 07105500 (FoCr_Nevada) because of inflows from Monument Creek with higher suspended-sediment concentrations. Median suspended-sediment concentrations between sites 07104905 (MoCr_Bijou) and 07105500 (FoCr_Nevada) increased significantly during warm-season flow but showed no significant differences during cold-season flow and stormflow. Significant decreases in median suspended-sediment concentrations were measured between sites 07105500 (FoCr_Nevada) and 07105530 (FoCr_Janitell) during all flow regimes.
Suspended-sediment concentrations, discharges, and yields associated with stormflow were significantly larger than those associated with warm-season flow. Although large spatial variations in suspended-sediment yields occurred during warm-season flows, the suspended-sediment yield associated with stormflow were as much as 1,000 times larger than the suspended-sediment yields that occurred during warm-season flow.
Director, Colorado Water Science Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25046, MS-415
Denver, CO 80225-0046
The stochastic empirical loading and dilution model (SELDM) was used to demonstrate methods for estimating risks for water-quality exceedances of event-mean concentrations (EMCs) of total-copper. Monte Carlo methods were used to simulate stormflow, total-hardness, suspended-sediment, and total-copper EMCs as stochastic variables. These simulations were done for the Charles River Basin upstream of Interstate 495 in Bellingham, Massachusetts. The hydrology and water quality of this site were simulated with SELDM by using data from nearby, hydrologically similar sites. Three simulations were done to assess the potential effects of the highway on receiving-water quality with and without highway-runoff treatment by a structural best-management practice (BMP). In the low-development scenario, total copper in the receiving stream was simulated by using a sediment transport curve, sediment chemistry, and sediment-water partition coefficients. In this scenario, neither the highway runoff nor the BMP effluent caused concentration exceedances in the receiving stream that exceed the once in three-year threshold (about 0.54 percent). In the second scenario, without the highway, runoff from the large urban areas in the basin caused exceedances in the receiving stream in 2.24 percent of runoff events. In the third scenario, which included the effects of the urban runoff, neither the highway runoff nor the BMP effluent increased the percentage of exceedances in the receiving stream. Comparison of the simulated geometric mean EMCs with data collected at a downstream monitoring site indicates that these simulated values are within the 95-percent confidence interval of the geometric mean of the measured EMCs.
","largerWorkType":{"id":4,"text":"Book"},"largerWorkTitle":"World environmental and water resources congress 2017: Watershed management, irrigation and drainage, and water resources planning and management","largerWorkSubtype":{"id":12,"text":"Conference publication"},"conferenceTitle":"World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2017","conferenceDate":"May 21-25, 2017","conferenceLocation":"Sacremento, CA","language":"English","publisher":"American Society of Civil Engineers","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.1061/9780784480601.028","isbn":"978-0-7844-8060-1","usgsCitation":"Granato, G.E., and Jones, S.C., 2017, Estimating risks for water-quality exceedances of total-copper from highway and urban runoff under predevelopment and current conditions with the Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model (SELDM), in World environmental and water resources congress 2017: Watershed management, irrigation and drainage, and water resources planning and management, Sacremento, CA, May 21-25, 2017, p. 313-327, https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784480601.028.","productDescription":"15 p.","startPage":"313","endPage":"327","ipdsId":"IP-074316","costCenters":[{"id":466,"text":"New England Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":344706,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"publishingServiceCenter":{"id":11,"text":"Pembroke PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-05-18","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"598c1f3ee4b09fa1cb0ffef3","contributors":{"editors":[{"text":"Dunn, Christopher N.","contributorId":195552,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Dunn","given":"Christopher","email":"","middleInitial":"N.","affiliations":[{"id":590,"text":"U.S. Army Corps of Engineers","active":false,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":707424,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Van Weele, Brian","contributorId":176821,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Van Weele","given":"Brian","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":707425,"contributorType":{"id":2,"text":"Editors"},"rank":2}],"authors":[{"text":"Granato, Gregory E. 0000-0002-2561-9913 ggranato@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2561-9913","contributorId":147346,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Granato","given":"Gregory","email":"ggranato@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[{"id":502,"text":"Office of Surface Water","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":376,"text":"Massachusetts Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":466,"text":"New England Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":707417,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Jones, Susan C. 0000-0002-5891-5209","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5891-5209","contributorId":64716,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Jones","given":"Susan","email":"","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[{"id":34302,"text":"Federal Highway Administration (United States)","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":707418,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70189156,"text":"ofr20171079 - 2017 - Compilation of geospatial data for the mineral industries and related infrastructure of Latin America and the Caribbean","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-08-28T13:20:56","indexId":"ofr20171079","displayToPublicDate":"2017-07-31T17:35:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":330,"text":"Open-File Report","code":"OFR","onlineIssn":"2331-1258","printIssn":"0196-1497","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2017-1079","title":"Compilation of geospatial data for the mineral industries and related infrastructure of Latin America and the Caribbean","docAbstract":"This report describes the U.S. Geological Survey’s (USGS) ongoing commitment to its mission of understanding the nature and distribution of global mineral commodity supply chains by updating and publishing the georeferenced locations of mineral commodity production and processing facilities, mineral exploration and development sites, and mineral commodity exporting ports in Latin America and the Caribbean. The report includes an overview of data sources and an explanation of the geospatial PDF map format.
The geodatabase and geospatial data layers described in this report create a new geographic information product in the form of a geospatial portable document format (PDF) map. The geodatabase contains additional data layers from USGS, foreign governmental, and open-source sources as follows: (1) coal occurrence areas, (2) electric power generating facilities, (3) electric power transmission lines, (4) hydrocarbon resource cumulative production data, (5) liquefied natural gas terminals, (6) oil and gas concession leasing areas, (7) oil and gas field center points, (8) oil and gas pipelines, (9) USGS petroleum provinces, (10) railroads, (11) recoverable proven plus probable hydrocarbon resources, (12) major cities, (13) major rivers, and (14) undiscovered porphyry copper tracts.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/ofr20171079","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Inter-American Development Bank","usgsCitation":"Baker, M.S., Buteyn, S.D., Freeman, P.A., Trippi, M.H., and Trimmer, L.M., III, 2017, Compilation of geospatial data for the mineral industries and related infrastructure of Latin America and the Caribbean: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2017–1079, 87 p., 1 geodatabase and 1 geospatial PDF map, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20171079. ","productDescription":"Report: xi, 87 p; 3 Data Releases; Geodatabase and Metadata; Map: 8.5 x 11.0 inches","numberOfPages":"104","onlineOnly":"Y","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","ipdsId":"IP-078672","costCenters":[{"id":432,"text":"National Minerals Information Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":438258,"rank":8,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.5066/F7BZ6460","text":"USGS data release","linkHelpText":"Mineral commodity exporting ports of Latin America and the Caribbean"},{"id":344263,"rank":7,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/58093603e4b0f497e78f3f31","text":"USGS data release","description":"USGS data release","linkHelpText":"Mineral commodity exporting ports of Latin America and the Caribbean"},{"id":344257,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1079/coverthb.jpg"},{"id":344258,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1079/ofr20171079.pdf","text":"Report","size":"4.81 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"OFR 2017-1079"},{"id":344259,"rank":3,"type":{"id":23,"text":"Spatial Data"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1079/ofr20171079_lac-indust-infra.pdf","text":"Geospatial Map","size":"29 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"linkHelpText":"- Compilation of Geospatial Data for the Mineral Industries and Related Infrastructure of Latin America and the Caribbean"},{"id":344260,"rank":4,"type":{"id":9,"text":"Database"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2017/1079/ofr20171079_lac-indust-infra.zip","text":"Geodatabase and metadata","size":"28.7 MB","linkFileType":{"id":6,"text":"zip"}},{"id":344261,"rank":5,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.5066/F7MG7MM6","text":"USGS data release","description":"USGS data release","linkHelpText":"Mineral facilities of Latin America and the Caribbean"},{"id":344262,"rank":6,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.5066/F7GQ6VWG","text":"USGS data release","description":"USGS data release","linkHelpText":"Mineral exploration sites of Latin America and the Caribbean"}],"otherGeospatial":"Caribbean, Latin America","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -118.828125,\n -57.51582286553883\n ],\n [\n -29.179687499999996,\n -57.51582286553883\n ],\n [\n -29.179687499999996,\n 34.30714385628804\n ],\n [\n -118.828125,\n 34.30714385628804\n ],\n [\n -118.828125,\n -57.51582286553883\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","contact":"National Minerals Information Center
U.S. Geological Survey
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
988 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Email: nmicrecordsmgt@usgs.gov
The analysis of blood constituents is a widely used tool to aid in monitoring of animal health and disease. However, classic blood diagnostics (i.e. hematologic and plasma biochemical values) often do not provide sufficient information to determine the state of an animal’s health. Field studies on wild tortoises and other reptiles have had limited success in drawing significant inferences between blood diagnostics and physiological and immunological condition. However, recent research using gene transcription profiling in the threatened Mojave desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) has proved useful in identifying immune or physiologic responses and overall health. To improve our understanding of health and immune function in tortoises, we evaluated both standard blood diagnostic (body condition, hematologic, plasma biochemistry values, trace elements, plasma proteins, vitamin A levels) and gene transcription profiles in 21 adult tortoises (11 clinically abnormal; 10 clinically normal) from Clark County, NV, USA. Necropsy and histology evaluations from clinically abnormal tortoises revealed multiple physiological complications, with moderate to severe rhinitis or pneumonia being the primary cause of morbidity in all but one of the examined animals. Clinically abnormal tortoises had increased transcription for four genes (SOD, MyD88, CL and Lep), increased lymphocyte production, biochemical enzymes and organics, trace elements of copper, and decreased numbers of leukocytes. We found significant positive correlations between increased transcription for SOD and increased trace elements for copper, as well as genes MyD88 and Lep with increased inflammation and microbial insults. Improved methods for health assessments are an important element of monitoring tortoise population recovery and can support the development of more robust diagnostic measures for ill animals, or individuals directly impacted by disturbance.
","language":"English","publisher":"Oxford Academic","doi":"10.1093/conphys/cox037","usgsCitation":"Drake, K.K., Bowen, L., Lewison, R.L., Esque, T., Nussear, K., Braun, J., Waters-Dynes, S.C., and Miles, A.K., 2017, Coupling gene-based and classic veterinary diagnostics improves interpretation of health and immune function in the Agassiz’s desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii): Conservation Physiology, v. 5, no. 1, Article cox037; 17 p., https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cox037.","productDescription":"Article cox037; 17 p.","ipdsId":"IP-083337","costCenters":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":469684,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cox037","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":343761,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"5","issue":"1","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":1,"text":"Sacramento PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-06-16","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5967353ce4b0d1f9f05dd7b6","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Drake, K. Kristina 0000-0003-0711-7634 kdrake@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0711-7634","contributorId":3799,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Drake","given":"K.","email":"kdrake@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Kristina","affiliations":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":704582,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Bowen, Lizabeth 0000-0001-9115-4336 lbowen@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9115-4336","contributorId":4539,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Bowen","given":"Lizabeth","email":"lbowen@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":704583,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Lewison, Rebecca L.","contributorId":194537,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Lewison","given":"Rebecca","email":"","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":6608,"text":"San Diego State University","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":704586,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Esque, Todd C. 0000-0002-4166-6234 tesque@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4166-6234","contributorId":168763,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Esque","given":"Todd C.","email":"tesque@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":704581,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Nussear, Kenneth","contributorId":194538,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Nussear","given":"Kenneth","affiliations":[{"id":24618,"text":"Department of Geography, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":704587,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Braun, Josephine","contributorId":194539,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Braun","given":"Josephine","affiliations":[{"id":17905,"text":"San Diego Zoo Global, San Diego, CA, USA","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":704588,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Waters-Dynes, Shannon C. 0000-0002-9707-4684 swaters@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9707-4684","contributorId":5826,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Waters-Dynes","given":"Shannon","email":"swaters@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":704584,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7},{"text":"Miles, A. Keith 0000-0002-3108-808X keith_miles@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3108-808X","contributorId":196,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Miles","given":"A.","email":"keith_miles@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Keith","affiliations":[{"id":651,"text":"Western Ecological Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":704585,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":8}]}} ,{"id":70188830,"text":"70188830 - 2017 - Sedimentology, sequence-stratigraphy, and geochemical variations in the Mesoproterozoic Nonesuch Formation, northern Wisconsin, USA","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-26T12:21:48","indexId":"70188830","displayToPublicDate":"2017-06-26T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":3112,"text":"Precambrian Research","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Sedimentology, sequence-stratigraphy, and geochemical variations in the Mesoproterozoic Nonesuch Formation, northern Wisconsin, USA","docAbstract":"We use core descriptions and portable X-ray fluorescence analyses to identify lithofacies and stratigraphic surfaces for the Mesoproterozoic Nonesuch Formation within the Ashland syncline, Wisconsin. We group lithofacies into facies associations and construct a sequence stratigraphic framework based on lithofacies stacking and stratigraphic surfaces. The fluvial-alluvial facies association (upper Copper Harbor Conglomerate) is overlain across a transgressive surface by the fluctuating-profundal facies association (lower Nonesuch Formation). The fluctuating-profundal facies association comprises a retrogradational sequence set overlain across a maximum flooding surface by an aggradational-progradational sequence set comprising fluctuating-profundal, fluvial-lacustrine, and fluvial-alluvial facies associations (middle Nonesuch through lower Freda Formations). Lithogeochemistry supports sedimentologic and stratigraphic interpretations. Fe/S molar ratios reflect the oxidation state of the lithofacies; values are most depleted above the maximum flooding surface where lithofacies are chemically reduced and are greatest in the chemically oxidized lithofacies. Si/Al and Zr/Al molar ratios reflect the relative abundance of detrital heavy minerals vs. clay minerals; greater values correlate with larger grain size. Vertical facies association stacking records depositional environments that evolved from fluvial and alluvial, to balanced-fill lake, to overfilled lake, and returning to fluvial and alluvial. Elsewhere in the basin, where accommodation was greatest, some volume of fluvial-lacustrine facies is likely present below the transgressive stratigraphic surface. This succession of continental and lake-basin types indicates a predominant tectonic driver of basin evolution. Lithofacies distribution and geochemistry indicate deposition within an asymmetric half-graben bounded on the east by a west-dipping growth fault. While facies assemblages are lacustrine and continental, periodic marine incursions are probable, especially across maximum transgressive surfaces.
We demonstrate a sequence-stratigraphic approach may be applied to fine-grained Precambrian sediments using traditional rock description and supporting lithogeochemistry. Identification of a characteristic lithofacies succession in Mesoproterozoic sediments demonstrates fundamental controls commonly interpreted for Phanerozoic lake systems may be extended into the Precambrian. These controls result in a predictable association of lithofacies, with distinct physical, biological, and geochemical properties. This has regional significance for carbon sequestration and the distribution of mineral and hydrocarbon resources and broader significance for addressing Mesoproterozoic paleogeographic reconstructions and questions related to the evolution of terrestrial life.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/j.precamres.2017.03.023","usgsCitation":"Kingsbury Stewart, E., and Mauk, J.L., 2017, Sedimentology, sequence-stratigraphy, and geochemical variations in the Mesoproterozoic Nonesuch Formation, northern Wisconsin, USA: Precambrian Research, v. 294, p. 111-132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2017.03.023.","productDescription":"22 p.","startPage":"111","endPage":"132","ipdsId":"IP-073739","costCenters":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":342880,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Wisconsin","otherGeospatial":"Mesoproterozoic Nonesuch Formation","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -93.5,\n 45.7\n ],\n [\n -87.5,\n 45.7\n ],\n [\n -87.5,\n 48.2\n ],\n [\n -93.5,\n 48.2\n ],\n [\n -93.5,\n 45.7\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"294","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":2,"text":"Denver PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"59521d1de4b062508e3c3646","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Kingsbury Stewart, Esther","contributorId":193464,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Kingsbury Stewart","given":"Esther","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":700536,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Mauk, Jeffrey L. 0000-0002-6244-2774 jmauk@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6244-2774","contributorId":4101,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mauk","given":"Jeffrey","email":"jmauk@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":700535,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":70185349,"text":"sim3379 - 2017 - Geologic map of the Strawberry Butte 7.5’ quadrangle, Meagher County, Montana","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-06-23T10:21:57","indexId":"sim3379","displayToPublicDate":"2017-06-19T16:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":333,"text":"Scientific Investigations Map","code":"SIM","onlineIssn":"2329-132X","printIssn":"2329-1311","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"3379","title":"Geologic map of the Strawberry Butte 7.5’ quadrangle, Meagher County, Montana","docAbstract":"The 7.5′ Strawberry Butte quadrangle in Meagher County, Montana near the southwest margin of the Little Belt Mountains, encompasses two sharply different geologic terranes. The northern three-quarters of the quadrangle are underlain mainly by Paleoproterozoic granite gneiss, across which Middle Cambrian sedimentary rocks rest unconformably. An ancestral valley of probable late Eocene age, eroded northwest across the granite gneiss terrane, is filled with Oligocene basalt and overlying Miocene and Oligocene sandstone, siltstone, tuffaceous siltstone, and conglomerate. The southern quarter of the quadrangle is underlain principally by deformed Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Newland Formation, which are intruded by Eocene biotite hornblende dacite dikes. In this southern terrane, Tertiary strata are exposed only in a limited area near the southeast margin of the quadrangle. The distinct terranes are juxtaposed along the Volcano Valley fault zone—a zone of recurrent crustal movement beginning possibly in Mesoproterozoic time and certainly established from Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian to late Tertiary time. Movement along the fault zone has included normal faulting, the southern terrane faulted down relative to the northern terrane, some reverse faulting as the southern terrane later moved up against the northern terrane, and lateral movement during which the southern terrane likely moved west relative to the northern terrane. Near the eastern margin of the quadrangle, the Newland Formation is locally the host of stratabound sulfide mineralization adjacent to the fault zone; west along the fault zone across the remainder of the quadrangle are significant areas and bands of hematite and iron-silicate mineral concentrations related to apparent alteration of iron sulfides. The map defines the distribution of a variety of surficial deposits, including the distribution of hematite-rich colluvium and iron-silicate boulders. The southeast corner of the quadrangle is the site of active exploration and potential development for copper from the sulfide-bearing strata of the Newland Formation.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/sim3379","usgsCitation":"Reynolds, M.W., and Brandt, T.R., 2017, Geologic map of the Strawberry Butte 7.5’ quadrangle, Meagher County, Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3379, pamphlet 16 p., 2 sheets, scale 1:24,000, https://doi.org/10.3133/sim3379.","productDescription":"Report: iii, 16 p.; 3 Sheets: 37.53 x 33.04 inches or smaller; Data Release; Read Me","numberOfPages":"24","onlineOnly":"Y","ipdsId":"IP-060660","costCenters":[{"id":318,"text":"Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":342001,"rank":4,"type":{"id":17,"text":"Plate"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3379/sim3379_geomap.pdf","text":"Sheet 1, georeferenced","size":"25.1 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"SIM 3379 Sheet 1, Georeferenced","linkHelpText":"Geologic Map of the Strawberry Butte 7.5’ Quadrangle, Meagher 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and Environmental Change Science Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25046, MS-980
Denver, CO 80225-0046
Phytoplankton growth in the Gulf of Alaska (GoA) is limited by iron (Fe), yet Fe sources are poorly constrained. We examine the temporal and spatial distributions of Fe, and its sources in the GoA, based on data from three cruises carried out in 2010 from the Copper River (AK) mouth to beyond the shelf break. April data are the first to describe late winter Fe behavior before surface water nitrate depletion began. Sediment resuspension during winter and spring storms generated high “total dissolvable Fe” (TDFe) concentrations of ~1000 nmol kg−1 along the entire continental shelf, which decreased beyond the shelf break. In July, high TDFe concentrations were similar on the shelf, but more spatially variable, and driven by low‐salinity glacial meltwater. Conversely, dissolved Fe (DFe) concentrations in surface waters were far lower and more seasonally consistent, ranging from ~4 nmol kg−1 in nearshore waters to ~0.6–1.5 nmol kg−1seaward of the shelf break during April and July, despite dramatic depletion of nitrate over that period. The reasonably constant DFe concentrations are likely maintained during the year across the shelf by complexation by strong organic ligands, coupled with ample supply of labile particulate Fe. The April DFe data can be simulated using a simple numerical model that assumes a DFe flux from shelf sediments, horizontal transport by eddy diffusion, and removal by scavenging. Given how global change is altering many processes impacting the Fe cycle, additional studies are needed to examine controls on DFe in the Gulf of Alaska.
","language":"English","publisher":"Ameican Geophysical Union","doi":"10.1002/2016GB005493","usgsCitation":"Crusius, J., Schroth, A.W., Resing, J.A., Cullen, J., and Campbell, R.W., 2017, Seasonal and spatial variabilities in northern Gulf of Alaska surface water iron concentrations driven by shelf sediment resuspension, glacial meltwater, a Yakutat eddy, and dust: Global Biogeochemical Cycles, v. 31, no. 6, p. 942-960, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005493.","productDescription":"19 p.","startPage":"942","endPage":"960","ipdsId":"IP-078971","costCenters":[{"id":119,"text":"Alaska Science Center Geology Minerals","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":469779,"rank":1,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gb005493","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":438308,"rank":0,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.5066/F7222S06","text":"USGS data release","linkHelpText":"Gulf of Alaska Shelf and Slope Iron and Nitrate data, Copper River Region, 2010"},{"id":356112,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Alaska","otherGeospatial":"Gulf of Alaska","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -147.5,\n 58\n ],\n [\n -143,\n 58\n ],\n [\n -143,\n 60.359564131824236\n ],\n [\n -147.5,\n 60.359564131824236\n ],\n [\n -147.5,\n 58\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"31","issue":"6","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":12,"text":"Tacoma PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-06-03","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"5b6fc67ce4b0f5d57878eb84","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Crusius, John 0000-0003-2554-0831 jcrusius@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2554-0831","contributorId":2155,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Crusius","given":"John","email":"jcrusius@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":114,"text":"Alaska Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":119,"text":"Alaska Science Center Geology Minerals","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":741299,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Schroth, Andrew W.","contributorId":192042,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Schroth","given":"Andrew","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[{"id":17809,"text":"University of Vermont, Burlington","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":741300,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Resing, Joseph A.","contributorId":206619,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Resing","given":"Joseph","email":"","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":37351,"text":"University of Washington; Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and the Ocean","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":741301,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Cullen, Jay","contributorId":206620,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Cullen","given":"Jay","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":37352,"text":"University of Victoria; School of Earth and Ocean Sciences Victoria, B.C.","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":741302,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Campbell, Robert W.","contributorId":206621,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Campbell","given":"Robert","email":"","middleInitial":"W.","affiliations":[{"id":37353,"text":"Prince William Sound Science Center, Cordova, AK","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":741303,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":70191910,"text":"70191910 - 2017 - A long-term copper exposure in a freshwater ecosystem using lotic mesocosms: Invertebrate community responses","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-10-18T17:13:50","indexId":"70191910","displayToPublicDate":"2017-05-30T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1571,"text":"Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"A long-term copper exposure in a freshwater ecosystem using lotic mesocosms: Invertebrate community responses","docAbstract":"A lotic mesocosm study was carried out in 20-m-long channels, under continuous, environmentally realistic concentrations of copper (Cu) in low, medium, and high exposures (nominally 0, 5, 25, and 75 μg L−1; average effective concentrations <0.5, 4, 20, and 57 μg L−1 respectively) for 18 mo. Total abundance, taxa richness, and community structure of zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, and emerging insects were severely affected at Cu treatment levels of 25 and 75 μg L−1. Some taxa were sensitive to Cu, including gastropods such as Lymnaea spp. and Physasp., crustaceans such as Chydorus sphaericus, Gammarus pulex, and Asellus aquaticus, rotifers such as Mytilina sp. and Trichocerca sp., leeches such as Erpobdella sp., and the emergence of dipteran insects such as Chironomini. Other taxa appeared to be tolerant or favored by indirect effects, as in Chironimidae larvae, the emergence of Orthocladiinae, and the zooplankter Vorticella sp., which increased in the 25 and 75 μg L−1 treatments. After approximately 8 mo of Cu exposure, the macroinvertebrate community in the high treatment was decimated to the point that few organisms could be detected, with moderate effects in the medium treatment, and very slight effects in the low-Cu treatment. Subsequently, most taxa in the high-Cu exposure began a gradual and partial recovery. By the end of the study at 18 mo, macroinvertebrate taxa richness was similar to control richness, although overall abundances remained lower than controls. After 18 mo of copper exposure, a no-observed-effect concentration at the community level for consumers was set at 5 μg L−1 (4 μg L−1 as average effective concentration), and a lowest-observed-effect concentration at 25 μg L−1(20 μg L−1 as average effective concentration).
","language":"English","publisher":"Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry","doi":"10.1002/ETC.3822","usgsCitation":"Joachim, S., Roussel, H., Bonzom, J., Thybaud, E., Mebane, C.A., Brink, P.V., and Gauthier, L., 2017, A long-term copper exposure in a freshwater ecosystem using lotic mesocosms: Invertebrate community responses: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, v. 36, no. 10, p. 2698-2714, https://doi.org/10.1002/ETC.3822.","productDescription":"17 p.","startPage":"2698","endPage":"2714","ipdsId":"IP-078992","costCenters":[{"id":343,"text":"Idaho Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":488065,"rank":0,"type":{"id":41,"text":"Open Access External Repository Page"},"url":"https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/A_long-term_copper_exposure_on_freshwater_ecosystem_using_lotic_mesocosms_-_Invertebrate_community_responses/4769635","text":"External Repository"},{"id":346929,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"36","issue":"10","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":12,"text":"Tacoma PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-10-01","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"59e86836e4b05fe04cd4d1fc","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Joachim, Sandrine","contributorId":197505,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Joachim","given":"Sandrine","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":713643,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Roussel, Helene","contributorId":197506,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Roussel","given":"Helene","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":713644,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Bonzom, Jean-Marc","contributorId":197507,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Bonzom","given":"Jean-Marc","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":713645,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Thybaud, Eric","contributorId":197508,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Thybaud","given":"Eric","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":713646,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Mebane, Christopher A. 0000-0002-9089-0267 cmebane@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9089-0267","contributorId":110,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mebane","given":"Christopher","email":"cmebane@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"A.","affiliations":[{"id":343,"text":"Idaho Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":713642,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Brink, Paul Van den","contributorId":197509,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Brink","given":"Paul","email":"","middleInitial":"Van den","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":713647,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Gauthier, Laury","contributorId":197510,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Gauthier","given":"Laury","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":713648,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7}]}} ,{"id":70191259,"text":"70191259 - 2017 - Undiscovered porphyry copper resources in the Urals—A probabilistic mineral resource assessment","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-10-02T13:30:35","indexId":"70191259","displayToPublicDate":"2017-05-01T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":2954,"text":"Ore Geology Reviews","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Undiscovered porphyry copper resources in the Urals—A probabilistic mineral resource assessment","docAbstract":"A probabilistic mineral resource assessment of metal resources in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits of the Ural Mountains in Russia and Kazakhstan was done using a quantitative form of mineral resource assessment. Permissive tracts were delineated on the basis of mapped and inferred subsurface distributions of igneous rocks assigned to tectonic zones that include magmatic arcs where the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits within 1 km of the Earth's surface are possible. These permissive tracts outline four north-south trending volcano-plutonic belts in major structural zones of the Urals. From west to east, these include permissive lithologies for porphyry copper deposits associated with Paleozoic subduction-related island-arc complexes preserved in the Tagil and Magnitogorsk arcs, Paleozoic island-arc fragments and associated tonalite-granodiorite intrusions in the East Uralian zone, and Carboniferous continental-margin arcs developed on the Kazakh craton in the Transuralian zone. The tracts range from about 50,000 to 130,000 km2 in area. The Urals host 8 known porphyry copper deposits with total identified resources of about 6.4 million metric tons of copper, at least 20 additional porphyry copper prospect areas, and numerous copper-bearing skarns and copper occurrences.
Probabilistic estimates predict a mean of 22 undiscovered porphyry copper deposits within the four permissive tracts delineated in the Urals. Combining estimates with established grade and tonnage models predicts a mean of 82 million metric tons of undiscovered copper. Application of an economic filter suggests that about half of that amount could be economically recoverable based on assumed depth distributions, availability of infrastructure, recovery rates, current metals prices, and investment environment.
","language":"English","publisher":"Elsevier","doi":"10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.09.007","usgsCitation":"Hammarstrom, J.M., Mihalasky, M.J., Ludington, S., Phillips, J., Berger, B.R., Denning, P., Dicken, C., Mars, J.C., Zientek, M.L., Herrington, R.J., and Seltmann, R., 2017, Undiscovered porphyry copper resources in the Urals—A probabilistic mineral resource assessment: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 85, p. 181-203, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.09.007.","productDescription":"23 p.","startPage":"181","endPage":"203","ipdsId":"IP-068679","costCenters":[{"id":245,"text":"Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":461619,"rank":0,"type":{"id":40,"text":"Open Access Publisher Index Page"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.09.007","text":"Publisher Index Page"},{"id":346315,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"country":"Kazakhstan, Russia","otherGeospatial":"Urals","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n 56,\n 50\n ],\n [\n 68,\n 50\n ],\n [\n 68,\n 70\n ],\n [\n 56,\n 70\n ],\n [\n 56,\n 50\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"85","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":9,"text":"Reston PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"59d35026e4b05fe04cc34d54","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hammarstrom, Jane M. 0000-0003-2742-3460 jhammars@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2742-3460","contributorId":1226,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hammarstrom","given":"Jane","email":"jhammars@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[{"id":387,"text":"Mineral Resources Program","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":245,"text":"Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711714,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Mihalasky, Mark J. 0000-0002-0082-3029 mjm@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0082-3029","contributorId":3692,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mihalasky","given":"Mark","email":"mjm@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":387,"text":"Mineral Resources Program","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":662,"text":"Western Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":711715,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ludington, Stephen 0000-0002-6265-4996 slud@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6265-4996","contributorId":172672,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ludington","given":"Stephen","email":"slud@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711716,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Phillips, Jeffrey 0000-0002-6459-2821 jeff@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6459-2821","contributorId":127453,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Phillips","given":"Jeffrey","email":"jeff@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711717,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Berger, Byron R. bberger@usgs.gov","contributorId":1490,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Berger","given":"Byron","email":"bberger@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":211,"text":"Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711718,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Denning, Paul pdenning@usgs.gov","contributorId":168842,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Denning","given":"Paul","email":"pdenning@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":171,"text":"Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711719,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Dicken, Connie cdicken@usgs.gov","contributorId":172878,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Dicken","given":"Connie","email":"cdicken@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":245,"text":"Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711720,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7},{"text":"Mars, John C. 0000-0002-0421-1388 jmars@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0421-1388","contributorId":178265,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Mars","given":"John","email":"jmars@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"C.","affiliations":[{"id":245,"text":"Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711721,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":8},{"text":"Zientek, Michael L. 0000-0002-8522-9626 mzientek@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8522-9626","contributorId":2420,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Zientek","given":"Michael","email":"mzientek@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":312,"text":"Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":711722,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":9},{"text":"Herrington, Richard J.","contributorId":70688,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Herrington","given":"Richard","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":711723,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":10},{"text":"Seltmann, Reimar","contributorId":73450,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Seltmann","given":"Reimar","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":711724,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":11}]}} ,{"id":70186519,"text":"70186519 - 2017 - Acute sensitivity of the vernal pool fairy shrimp, Branchinecta lynchi (Anostraca; Branchinectidae), and surrogate species to 10 chemicals","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-04-05T08:54:31","indexId":"70186519","displayToPublicDate":"2017-04-05T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1571,"text":"Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Acute sensitivity of the vernal pool fairy shrimp, Branchinecta lynchi (Anostraca; Branchinectidae), and surrogate species to 10 chemicals","docAbstract":"Vernal pool fairy shrimp, Branchinecta lynchi, (Branchiopoda; Anostraca) and other fairy shrimp species have been listed as threatened or endangered under the US Endangered Species Act. Because few data exist about the sensitivity of Branchinecta spp. to toxic effects of contaminants, it is difficult to determine whether they are adequately protected by water quality criteria. A series of acute (24-h) lethality/immobilization tests was conducted with 3 species of fairy shrimp (B. lynchi, Branchinecta lindahli, and Thamnocephalus platyurus) and 10 chemicals with varying modes of toxic action: ammonia, potassium, chloride, sulfate, chromium(VI), copper, nickel, zinc, alachlor, and metolachlor. The same chemicals were tested in 48-h tests with other branchiopods (the cladocerans Daphnia magna and Ceriodaphnia dubia) and an amphipod (Hyalella azteca), and in 96-h tests with snails (Physa gyrina and Lymnaea stagnalis). Median effect concentrations (EC50s) for B. lynchi were strongly correlated (r2 = 0.975) with EC50s for the commercially available fairy shrimp species T. platyurus for most chemicals tested. Comparison of EC50s for fairy shrimp and EC50s for invertebrate taxa tested concurrently and with other published toxicity data indicated that fairy shrimp were relatively sensitive to potassium and several trace metals compared with other invertebrate taxa, although cladocerans, amphipods, and mussels had similar broad toxicant sensitivity. Interspecies correlation estimation models for predicting toxicity to fairy shrimp from surrogate species indicated that models with cladocerans and freshwater mussels as surrogates produced the best predictions of the sensitivity of fairy shrimp to contaminants. The results of these studies indicate that fairy shrimp are relatively sensitive to a range of toxicants, but Endangered Species Act-listed fairy shrimp of the genus Branchinecta were not consistently more sensitive than other fairy shrimp taxa. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:797–806. Published 2016 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.
","language":"English","publisher":"Wiley","doi":"10.1002/etc.3723","usgsCitation":"Ivey, C.D., Besser, J.M., Ingersoll, C.G., Wang, N., Rogers, D.C., Raimondo, S., Bauer, C.R., and Hammer, E.J., 2017, Acute sensitivity of the vernal pool fairy shrimp, Branchinecta lynchi (Anostraca; Branchinectidae), and surrogate species to 10 chemicals: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, v. 36, no. 3, p. 797-806, https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3723.","productDescription":"10 p.","startPage":"797","endPage":"806","ipdsId":"IP-079384","costCenters":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":438382,"rank":0,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.5066/F74J0C72","text":"USGS data release","linkHelpText":"Acute sensitivity of the vernal pool fairy shrimp, Branchinecta lynchi (Anostraca; Branchinectidae), and surrogate species to ten chemicals-Data"},{"id":339183,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"36","issue":"3","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":4,"text":"Rolla PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2016-12-26","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58e6026ee4b09da6799ac679","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ivey, Chris D. 0000-0002-0485-7242 civey@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0485-7242","contributorId":3308,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ivey","given":"Chris","email":"civey@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":688563,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Besser, John M. 0000-0002-9464-2244 jbesser@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9464-2244","contributorId":2073,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Besser","given":"John","email":"jbesser@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":688564,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ingersoll, Christopher G. 0000-0003-4531-5949 cingersoll@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4531-5949","contributorId":2071,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ingersoll","given":"Christopher","email":"cingersoll@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":688565,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Wang, Ning 0000-0002-2846-3352 nwang@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2846-3352","contributorId":2818,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wang","given":"Ning","email":"nwang@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":688566,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Rogers, D. Christopher","contributorId":190496,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Rogers","given":"D.","email":"","middleInitial":"Christopher","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":688567,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Raimondo, Sandy","contributorId":150748,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Raimondo","given":"Sandy","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":18090,"text":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, Gulf Breeze, FL","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":688568,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Bauer, Candice R.","contributorId":150724,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Bauer","given":"Candice","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":18077,"text":"U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, Water Quality Branch, Chicago, Illinois","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":688569,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7},{"text":"Hammer, Edward J.","contributorId":150723,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Hammer","given":"Edward","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":18077,"text":"U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, Water Quality Branch, Chicago, Illinois","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":688570,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":8}]}} ,{"id":70185689,"text":"70185689 - 2017 - Acute sensitivity of a broad range of freshwater mussels to chemicals with different modes of toxic action","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-03-27T16:11:22","indexId":"70185689","displayToPublicDate":"2017-03-27T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":2,"text":"Article"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":10,"text":"Journal Article"},"seriesTitle":{"id":1571,"text":"Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":10}},"title":"Acute sensitivity of a broad range of freshwater mussels to chemicals with different modes of toxic action","docAbstract":"Freshwater mussels, one of the most imperiled groups of animals in the world, are generally underrepresented in toxicity databases used for the development of ambient water quality criteria and other environmental guidance values. Acute 96-h toxicity tests were conducted to evaluate the sensitivity of 5 species of juvenile mussels from 2 families and 4 tribes to 10 chemicals (ammonia, metals, major ions, and organic compounds) and to screen 10 additional chemicals (mainly organic compounds) with a commonly tested mussel species, fatmucket (Lampsilis siliquoidea). In the multi-species study, median effect concentrations (EC50s) among the 5 species differed by a factor of ≤2 for chloride, potassium, sulfate, and zinc; a factor of ≤5 for ammonia, chromium, copper, and nickel; and factors of 6 and 12 for metolachlor and alachlor, respectively, indicating that mussels representing different families or tribes had similar sensitivity to most of the tested chemicals, regardless of modes of action. There was a strong linear relationship between EC50s for fatmucket and the other 4 mussel species across the 10 chemicals (r2 = 0.97, slope close to 1.0), indicating that fatmucket was similar to other mussel species; thus, this commonly tested species can be a good surrogate for protecting other mussels in acute exposures. The sensitivity of juvenile fatmucket among different populations or cultured from larvae of wild adults and captive-cultured adults was also similar in acute exposures to copper or chloride, indicating captive-cultured adult mussels can reliably be used to reproduce juveniles for toxicity testing. In compiled databases for all freshwater species, 1 or more mussel species were among the 4 most sensitive species for alachlor, ammonia, chloride, potassium, sulfate, copper, nickel, and zinc; therefore, the development of water quality criteria and other environmental guidance values for these chemicals should reflect the sensitivity of mussels. In contrast, the EC50s of fatmucket tested in the single-species study were in the high percentiles (>75th) of species sensitivity distributions for 6 of 7 organic chemicals, indicating mussels might be relatively insensitive to organic chemicals in acute exposures.
","language":"English","publisher":"SETAC Press","doi":"10.1002/etc.3642","usgsCitation":"Wang, N., Ivey, C.D., Ingersoll, C.G., Brumbaugh, W.G., Alvarez, D., Hammer, E.J., Bauer, C.R., Augspurger, T., Raimondo, S., and Barnhart, M., 2017, Acute sensitivity of a broad range of freshwater mussels to chemicals with different modes of toxic action: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, v. 36, no. 3, p. 786-796, https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3642.","productDescription":"11 p.","startPage":"786","endPage":"796","ipdsId":"IP-077267","costCenters":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":469990,"rank":0,"type":{"id":41,"text":"Open Access External Repository Page"},"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/8220997","text":"External Repository"},{"id":338421,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"}],"volume":"36","issue":"3","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":4,"text":"Rolla PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2016-10-04","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58da2517e4b0543bf7fda7ec","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Wang, Ning 0000-0002-2846-3352 nwang@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2846-3352","contributorId":2818,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Wang","given":"Ning","email":"nwang@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":686402,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Ivey, Chris D. 0000-0002-0485-7242 civey@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0485-7242","contributorId":3308,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ivey","given":"Chris","email":"civey@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":686403,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Ingersoll, Christopher G. 0000-0003-4531-5949 cingersoll@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4531-5949","contributorId":2071,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ingersoll","given":"Christopher","email":"cingersoll@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":686404,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Brumbaugh, William G. 0000-0003-0081-375X bbrumbaugh@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0081-375X","contributorId":493,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brumbaugh","given":"William","email":"bbrumbaugh@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":686405,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Alvarez, David 0000-0002-6918-2709 dalvarez@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6918-2709","contributorId":150499,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Alvarez","given":"David","email":"dalvarez@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":686406,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Hammer, Edward J.","contributorId":150723,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Hammer","given":"Edward","email":"","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":18077,"text":"U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, Water Quality Branch, Chicago, Illinois","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":686407,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6},{"text":"Bauer, Candice R.","contributorId":150724,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Bauer","given":"Candice","email":"","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":18077,"text":"U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, Water Quality Branch, Chicago, Illinois","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":686408,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":7},{"text":"Augspurger, Tom","contributorId":189894,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Augspurger","given":"Tom","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":6661,"text":"US Fish and Wildlife Service","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":686409,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":8},{"text":"Raimondo, Sandy","contributorId":150748,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Raimondo","given":"Sandy","email":"","affiliations":[{"id":18090,"text":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, Gulf Breeze, FL","active":true,"usgs":false}],"preferred":false,"id":686410,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":9},{"text":"Barnhart, M.Christopher","contributorId":189895,"corporation":false,"usgs":false,"family":"Barnhart","given":"M.Christopher","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":686411,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":10}]}} ,{"id":70179269,"text":"sir20165173 - 2017 - Geology and mining history of the Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines, Washington, Jefferson, and St. Francois Counties, Missouri","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2017-03-09T15:14:37","indexId":"sir20165173","displayToPublicDate":"2017-03-09T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2017","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":334,"text":"Scientific Investigations Report","code":"SIR","onlineIssn":"2328-0328","printIssn":"2328-031X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2016-5173","title":"Geology and mining history of the Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines, Washington, Jefferson, and St. Francois Counties, Missouri","docAbstract":"The Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines are located in Washington, Jefferson, and St. Francois Counties, Missouri, where barite and lead ore are present together in surficial and near-surface deposits. Lead mining in the area began in the early 1700’s and extended into the early 1900’s. Hand mining of lead in the residuum resulted in widespread pits (also called shafts or diggings), and there was some underground mining of lead in bedrock. By the 1860’s barite was recovered from the residuum by hand mining, also resulting in widespread diggings, but generally not underground mines in bedrock. Mechanized open-pit mining of the residuum for barite began in the 1920’s. Barite production slowed by the 1980’s, and there has not been any barite mining since 1998. Mechanized barite mining resulted in large mined areas and tailings ponds containing waste from barite mills.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has determined that lead is present in surface soils in Washington and Jefferson Counties at concentrations exceeding health-based screening levels. Also, elevated concentrations of barium, arsenic, and cadmium have been identified in surface soils, and lead concentrations exceeding the Federal drinking-water standard of 15 micrograms per liter have been identified in private drinking-water wells. Potential sources of these contaminants are wastes associated with barite mining, wastes associated with lead mining, or unmined natural deposits of barium, lead, and other metals. As a first step in helping EPA determine the source of soil and groundwater contamination, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the EPA, investigated the geology and mining history of the Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines.
Ore minerals are barite (barium sulfate), galena (lead sulfide), cerussite (lead carbonate), anglesite (lead sulfate), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), smithsonite (zinc carbonate), and chalcopyrite (copper-iron sulfide). The Cambrian Potosi Dolomite is the most important formation for the ore deposits, followed by the Eminence Dolomite. Because galena, sphalerite, and barite are less soluble than dolomite, chemical weathering of the ore-bearing dolomite bedrock resulted in the concentration of ore minerals in the residuum. Most of the barite and lead mining was in the residuum, which averages 10 to 15 feet thick.
Lead mining by French explorers may have begun in 1719 along Old Mines Creek at Cabanage de Renaudiere, which was followed shortly by the discovery of lead and the development of lead mines at Mine Renault (also called Forche a Renault Mine), Old Mines, and at other places along the Big River, Mineral Fork, and Forche a Renault Creek. Lead mining began sometime between 1775 and 1780 at Mine a Breton, the name of which was later changed to Potosi. Other mining areas were developed in the early part of the 19th century, including Fourche a Courtois (Palmer Mines), the French Diggings, and the Richwoods Mines. Zinc became a valuable resource after the Civil War, and the Valles Mines was an important supplier of zinc as well as lead, with at least some production up until the 1920’s. Lead mining declined in the early part of the 20th century as mining in the Old Lead Belt, Mine La Motte, and the Tri-State District expanded.
The earliest lead mines were diggings in the residuum and were round holes (shafts) about 4 feet in diameter dug with pick and shovel about 15–20 feet deep, with drifts dug a short distance laterally from the bottom of the shafts. This mining process was repeated a short distance away until a large area was covered with pits. Some mining in bedrock began by about 1800, with shafts as deep as 170 feet and as much as several hundred feet of lateral drifts.
Smelting of the lead ore to elemental lead was first done using a log furnace, which was inefficient; estimates have been made that only about 50 percent of the lead was recovered, and the remainder was lost to the ashes (slags) and to volatilization. Starting in 1798, ash furnaces were used to smelt the ashes from the log furnaces. These two furnaces were worked in tandem for many years but were gradually replaced by other furnaces, including the Scotch hearth. Estimates of lead recovery as high as 80–90 percent have been made for the Scotch hearth. By the mid-1870’s the air furnace was being used, also with estimated lead recovery as high as 80–90 percent. Zinc furnaces were built when zinc became a valuable commodity, but much of the zinc ore was shipped out of the area, either to a smelter in St. Louis, Missouri, or to other smelters.
The total lead and zinc production from the Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines is estimated at 180,000 tons of lead and 60,000 tons of zinc. An estimated 97,000 tons of lead and an estimated 120,000 tons of zinc were lost during smelting. The estimated losses do not include losses at the mine site during mining and preparation for smelting, such as the loss of fine-grained galena during hand cleaning or the discarding of zinc ore before its value was known, for which no estimates are available.
Hand mining for barite in the residuum was active by at least the 1860’s and peaked from 1905 to the 1930’s when several thousand people were engaged in barite mining. Hand mining (diggings) and cleaning of the ore was done in much the same way as earlier lead mining, with the additional use of a rattle box to further clean the barite. Mechanized open-pit mining of old barite diggings began in 1924 to recover barite left behind by hand mining, and washing plants were used to clean the clay from the barite. Hand mining, however, continued to thrive, and washer plants began to close temporarily in 1931; nearly all of the barite produced before 1937 was by hand mining. By the 1940’s, however, all barite mining was mechanized.
Mechanized mining used shovels powered by steam, gasoline, or electricity (and by the 1950’s draglines and front-end loaders) to mine the residuum. The ore was loaded onto rail cars (and by the 1940’s, trucks) for shipment to washer plants. Clay was removed from the barite using a log washer, and a jig was used to concentrate the barite. Overflow from the log washers was waste and went to a mud (tailings) pond. The coarse jig tailings went to tailings piles or were used as railroad ballast and, later, to create roads within the mine pit. Some barite was ground, depending on its final use, and some ground barite was bleached using a hot solution of sulfuric acid to remove impurities such as iron minerals and lead sulfide (galena). An earlier bleaching process used lead-lined tanks.
Large quantities of water were required for milling the barite; some was recirculated water and the remainder came from dammed streams or was pumped from wells. Tailings and wastewater were impounded behind dikes that were built across small valleys and were increased in height as necessary using washer waste and any overburden that had been stripped. In some cases, dikes were built across valleys that had already been mined for barite.
The total production of barite from the Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines is estimated to have been about 13.1 million tons. Most of the barite production was from Washington County. Hand mining and processing of barite was inefficient. Estimates of barite recovery range from less than one-fourth to about one-half because pillars between the shafts in the residuum needed to be left unmined for stability. With mechanized mining, large amounts of barite were lost during the milling process. It has been estimated that about 30 percent of the barite was lost and that about two-thirds of the lost barite was fine-grained and was discharged to the tailings ponds. Some galena was lost to the tailings ponds.
A 1972 inventory of tailings ponds by the Missouri Geological Survey identified 67 ponds in the Southeast Missouri Barite District (there are more than this currently documented). Results from samples from four ponds that were drilled were used to estimate that the 67 ponds contained almost 39 million tons (or cubic yards) of tailings averaging about 5 percent barite, for a potential reserve of 1.935 million tons of barite.
It is not known how much lead was removed during barite mining, either by hand or mechanized mining and processing, how much lead was recovered, or how much lead went as fines to the tailing ponds or as coarse material to mine roads or was otherwise lost.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/sir20165173","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","usgsCitation":"Mugel, D.N., 2017, Geology and mining history of the Southeast Missouri Barite District and the Valles Mines, Washington, Jefferson, and St. Francois Counties, Missouri: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2016–5173, 61 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20165173.","productDescription":"vi, 61 p.","numberOfPages":"72","onlineOnly":"N","ipdsId":"IP-076644","costCenters":[{"id":396,"text":"Missouri Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":337151,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2016/5173/coverthb.jpg"},{"id":337152,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2016/5173/sir20165173.pdf","text":"Report","size":"11.5 MB","linkFileType":{"id":1,"text":"pdf"},"description":"SIR 2016–5173"}],"country":"United States","state":"Missouri","county":"Jefferson County, St. Francois County, Washington County","otherGeospatial":"Southeast Missouri Barite District, Valles Mines","geographicExtents":"{\"type\":\"FeatureCollection\",\"features\":[{\"type\":\"Feature\",\"geometry\":{\"type\":\"Polygon\",\"coordinates\":[[[-90.3435,38.3872],[-90.3467,38.3829],[-90.3507,38.3774],[-90.3536,38.372],[-90.3565,38.367],[-90.3566,38.362],[-90.3579,38.357],[-90.3598,38.3516],[-90.3617,38.3471],[-90.3648,38.3422],[-90.3673,38.3372],[-90.3698,38.3319],[-90.3713,38.3274],[-90.3724,38.3224],[-90.3723,38.3179],[-90.3728,38.3116],[-90.3729,38.307],[-90.3727,38.3011],[-90.3731,38.288],[-90.373,38.278],[-90.37,38.269],[-90.3682,38.2622],[-90.3663,38.255],[-90.3645,38.2486],[-90.3624,38.2424],[-90.3603,38.2356],[-90.3564,38.2264],[-90.3524,38.2197],[-90.3498,38.2141],[-90.3453,38.208],[-90.3413,38.2031],[-90.3373,38.1989],[-90.3334,38.1949],[-90.3292,38.1904],[-90.3222,38.1846],[-90.3185,38.1823],[-90.3133,38.1805],[-90.3092,38.1787],[-90.3028,38.177],[-90.297,38.1751],[-90.2904,38.1725],[-90.2839,38.1689],[-90.2792,38.1652],[-90.2745,38.1604],[-90.2709,38.1559],[-90.2673,38.1501],[-90.2634,38.1441],[-90.256,38.1333],[-90.2504,38.1255],[-90.2493,38.1239],[-90.2512,38.123],[-90.2513,38.1198],[-90.2554,38.1195],[-90.259,38.115],[-90.2633,38.1096],[-90.2674,38.1088],[-90.2756,38.1094],[-90.2785,38.109],[-90.281,38.1045],[-90.287,38.0983],[-90.2925,38.0925],[-90.2972,38.0898],[-90.303,38.0922],[-90.31,38.0946],[-90.3163,38.0974],[-90.3227,38.0975],[-90.3315,38.0995],[-90.4137,38.0447],[-90.3254,37.9861],[-90.4574,37.8823],[-90.2396,37.6998],[-90.2203,37.6854],[-90.2027,37.6701],[-90.1535,37.7004],[-90.1114,37.6715],[-90.1489,37.6423],[-90.2204,37.6423],[-90.5349,37.6441],[-90.5907,37.6441],[-90.6483,37.6437],[-90.6454,37.7365],[-90.7687,37.7393],[-90.8159,37.7381],[-90.8747,37.7362],[-90.874,37.7403],[-90.8892,37.7378],[-90.8921,37.7369],[-91.1004,37.7431],[-91.0925,38.005],[-91.0963,38.2072],[-90.999,38.2079],[-90.9702,38.2111],[-90.9703,38.2084],[-90.7788,38.2077],[-90.7386,38.4184],[-90.7358,38.4832],[-90.7282,38.4821],[-90.7194,38.4811],[-90.7165,38.4802],[-90.7172,38.4734],[-90.7161,38.4729],[-90.7125,38.4733],[-90.7096,38.4751],[-90.7037,38.4763],[-90.6967,38.474],[-90.6898,38.4653],[-90.6875,38.4625],[-90.6888,38.4585],[-90.69,38.4567],[-90.6889,38.4557],[-90.6818,38.4574],[-90.68,38.4565],[-90.683,38.4543],[-90.6837,38.4511],[-90.6802,38.4497],[-90.6743,38.4505],[-90.6589,38.4571],[-90.6547,38.4598],[-90.6546,38.4638],[-90.6574,38.4698],[-90.6596,38.4734],[-90.6594,38.4811],[-90.6569,38.4883],[-90.6516,38.4905],[-90.6456,38.4927],[-90.6398,38.4922],[-90.6328,38.4884],[-90.6282,38.4847],[-90.623,38.481],[-90.6189,38.4787],[-90.6143,38.4773],[-90.6084,38.4785],[-90.6041,38.4839],[-90.5998,38.4902],[-90.5967,38.4951],[-90.5918,38.5032],[-90.5906,38.5064],[-90.4089,38.5039],[-90.406,38.5016],[-90.4061,38.4984],[-90.4079,38.4962],[-90.4075,38.4912],[-90.4052,38.4884],[-90.4083,38.4839],[-90.4119,38.4822],[-90.4125,38.4822],[-90.4137,38.4813],[-90.4154,38.4818],[-90.4201,38.4837],[-90.4218,38.4832],[-90.4224,38.4833],[-90.4224,38.4824],[-90.4214,38.4774],[-90.4215,38.4751],[-90.4159,38.4627],[-90.4102,38.4581],[-90.4067,38.4567],[-90.4026,38.4571],[-90.399,38.4593],[-90.3954,38.461],[-90.3919,38.4601],[-90.3903,38.4569],[-90.3868,38.455],[-90.3773,38.4562],[-90.3602,38.46],[-90.356,38.4617],[-90.3466,38.4616],[-90.3443,38.4606],[-90.3402,38.4592],[-90.3368,38.456],[-90.3375,38.4496],[-90.3442,38.4434],[-90.3474,38.4348],[-90.3473,38.4194],[-90.3467,38.4167],[-90.3488,38.4072],[-90.345,38.3972],[-90.3451,38.3935],[-90.3435,38.3872]]]},\"properties\":{\"name\":\"Jefferson\",\"state\":\"MO\"}}]}","contact":"Director, Missouri Water Science Center
U.S. Geological Survey
1400 Independence Road
Rolla, MO 65401
The risks to wildlife and humans from uranium (U) mining in the Grand Canyon watershed are largely unknown. In addition to U, other co-occurring ore constituents contribute to risks to biological receptors depending on their toxicological profiles. This study characterizes the pre-mining concentrations of total arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), thallium (Tl), U, and zinc (Zn); radiation levels; and histopathology in biota (vegetation, invertebrates, amphibians, birds, and mammals) at the Canyon Mine. Gross alpha levels were below the reporting limit (4 pCi/g) in all samples, and gross beta levels were indicative of background in vegetation (<10–17 pCi/g) and rodents (<10–43.5 pCi/g). Concentrations of U, Tl, Pb, Ni, Cu, and As in vegetation downwind from the mine were likely the result of aeolian transport. Chemical concentrations in rodents and terrestrial invertebrates indicate that surface disturbance during mine construction has not resulted in statistically significant spatial differences in fauna concentrations adjacent to the mine. Chemical concentrations in egg contents and nestlings of non-aquatic birds were less than method quantification limits or did not exceed toxicity thresholds. Bioaccumulation of As, Pb, Se, Tl, and U was evident in Western spadefoot (Spea multiplicata) tadpoles from the mine containment pond; concentrations of As (28.9–31.4 μg/g) and Se (5.81–7.20 μg/g) exceeded toxicity values and were significantly greater than in tadpoles from a nearby water source. Continued evaluation of As and Se in biota inhabiting and forging in the mine containment pond is warranted as mining progresses.
","language":"English","publisher":"Springer","doi":"10.1007/s10661-017-5765-1","usgsCitation":"Hinck, J.E., Cleveland, D.M., Brumbaugh, W.G., Linder, G., and Lankton, J.S., 2017, Pre-mining trace element and radiation exposure to biota from a breccia pipe uranium mine in the Grand Canyon (Arizona, USA) watershed: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, v. 189, no. 56, 23 p., https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5765-1.","productDescription":"23 p.","ipdsId":"IP-075531","costCenters":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":456,"text":"National Wildlife Health Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":336813,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/outside_thumb.jpg"},{"id":337739,"rank":2,"type":{"id":30,"text":"Data Release"},"url":"https://doi.org/10.5066/F7QF8R16","text":"Chemistry, radiation and histopathology data in support of manuscript \"Pre-mining trace element and radiation exposure to biota from a breccia pipe uranium mine in the Grand Canyon (Arizona, USA) watershed\""}],"country":"United States","state":"Arizona","county":"Coconino County","otherGeospatial":"Canyon Mine","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -112.101944,\n 35.886111\n ],\n [\n -112.091111,\n 35.886111\n ],\n [\n -112.091111,\n 35.877778\n ],\n [\n -112.101944,\n 35.877778\n ],\n [\n -112.101944,\n 35.886111\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","volume":"189","issue":"56","publishingServiceCenter":{"id":4,"text":"Rolla PSC"},"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationDate":"2017-01-13","publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"58ba8ebbe4b0bcef64f0b931","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Hinck, Jo Ellen 0000-0002-4912-5766 jhinck@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4912-5766","contributorId":2743,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Hinck","given":"Jo","email":"jhinck@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Ellen","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":680563,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Cleveland, Danielle M. 0000-0003-3880-4584 dcleveland@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3880-4584","contributorId":187471,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Cleveland","given":"Danielle","email":"dcleveland@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":680564,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Brumbaugh, William G. 0000-0003-0081-375X bbrumbaugh@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0081-375X","contributorId":493,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Brumbaugh","given":"William","email":"bbrumbaugh@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"G.","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":680565,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Linder, Greg linder2@usgs.gov","contributorId":187472,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Linder","given":"Greg","email":"linder2@usgs.gov","affiliations":[{"id":192,"text":"Columbia Environmental Research Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":680566,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Lankton, Julia S. 0000-0002-6843-4388 jlankton@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6843-4388","contributorId":5888,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lankton","given":"Julia","email":"jlankton@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"S.","affiliations":[{"id":456,"text":"National Wildlife Health Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":680573,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ]}