Forests of the Apalachicola River floodplain had shorter flood durations, were drier in composition, and had 17 percent fewer trees in 2004 than in 1976. The change to drier forest composition is expected to continue for at least 80 more years. Floodplain drying was caused by large declines in river levels resulting from erosion of the river channel after 1954 and from decreased flows in spring and summer months since the 1970s. Water-level declines have been greatest at low and medium flows, which are the most common flows (occurring about 80 percent of the time). Water levels have remained relatively unchanged during large floods which continue to occur about three times per decade.
A study conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey compared temporal changes in hydrologic conditions, forest composition, forest characteristics, and individual species of trees, as well as estimated the potential for change in composition of floodplain forests in the nontidal reach of the Apalachicola River. The study was conducted with the cooperation of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the Northwest Florida Water Management District. Forest composition and field observations from studies conducted in 1976-1984 (termed “1976 data”) were used as baseline data for comparison with data from plots sampled in 2004-2006 (“2004 data”).
Flood durations were shorter in all periods subsequent to 1923-1976. The periods of record used to calculate flood durations for forest data were subsets of the complete record available (1923-2004). At sampled plots in all forest types and reaches combined, flood durations changed an average of more than 70 percent toward the baseline flood duration of the next drier forest type. For all forest types, changes in flood durations toward the next drier type were greatest in the upper reach (95.9 percent) and least in the lower reach (42.0 percent).
All forests are expected to be 38.2 percent drier in species composition by 2085, the year when the median age of surviving 2004 subcanopy trees will reach the median age (99 years) of the 2004 large canopy trees. The change will be greatest for forests in the upper reach (45.0 percent). Forest composition changes from pre-1954 to 2085 were calculated using Floodplain Indices from 1976 and 2004 tree-size classes and replicate plots.
Species composition in high bottomland hardwood forests is expected to continue to change, and some low bottomland hardwood forests are expected to become high bottomland hardwood forests. Organisms associated with floodplain forests will be affected by the changes in tree species, which will alter the timing of leaf-out, fruiting, and leaf-drop, the types of fruit and debris produced, and soil chemistry. Swamps will contain more bottomland hardwood species, but will also have an overall loss of tree density.
The density of trees in swamps significantly decreased by 37 percent from 1976 to 2004. Of the estimated 4.3 million (17 percent) fewer trees that existed in the nontidal floodplain in 2004 than in 1976, 3.3 million trees belonged to four swamp species: popash, Ogeechee tupelo, water tupelo, and bald cypress. Water tupelo, the most important tree in the nontidal floodplain in terms of basal area and density, has declined in number of trees by nearly 20 percent since 1976. Ogeechee tupelo, the species valuable to the tupelo honey industry, has declined in number of trees by at least 44 percent.
Greater hydrologic variability in recent years may be the reason swamps have had a large decrease in tree density. Drier conditions are detrimental for the growth of swamp species, and periodic large floods kill invading bottomland hardwood trees. The loss of canopy density in swamps may result in the swamp floor being exposed to more light with an increase in the amount of ground cover present, which in turn, would reduce tree replacement. The microclimate of the swamp floor would become warmer due to the decrease in shade and inundation. Soils would become dehydrated more quickly in dry periods and debris would decompose more quickly. A loss of tree density in swamps would lead to a decrease in tree and leaf litter biomass, which would have additional effects on swamp organisms. The loss of litter would result in a loss of substrate for benthic organisms in the floodplain and, ultimately, in the downstream waters of the river and estuary.
The population of Delta County, Colorado, like that in much of the Western United States, is forecast to increase substantially in the next few decades. A substantial portion of the increased population likely will reside in rural subdivisions and use residential wells for domestic water supplies. In Colorado, a subdivision developer is required to submit a water-supply plan through the county for approval by the Colorado Division of Water Resources. If the water supply is to be provided by wells, the water-supply plan must include a water-supply report. The water-supply report demonstrates the availability, sustainability, and suitability of the water supply for the proposed subdivision. During 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Delta County, Colorado, began a study to develop criteria that the Delta County Land Use Department can use to evaluate water-supply reports for proposed subdivisions.
A table was prepared that lists the types of analyses and data that may be needed in a water-supply report for a water-supply plan that proposes the use of ground water. A preliminary analysis of the availability, sustainability, and suitability of the ground-water resources of Rogers Mesa, Delta County, Colorado, was prepared for a hypothetical subdivision to demonstrate hydrologic analyses and data that may be needed for water-supply reports for proposed subdivisions.
Rogers Mesa is a 12-square-mile upland mesa located along the north side of the North Fork Gunnison River about 15 miles east of Delta, Colorado. The principal land use on Rogers Mesa is irrigated agriculture, with about 5,651 acres of irrigated cropland, grass pasture, and orchards. The principal source of irrigation water is surface water diverted from the North Fork Gunnison River and Leroux Creek. The estimated area of platted subdivisions on or partially on Rogers Mesa in 2007 was about 4,792 acres of which about 2,756 acres was irrigated land in 2000.
The principal aquifer on Rogers Mesa consists of alluvial-fan deposits that overlie shale and, locally, sandstone. Maps of the base of the aquifer, the water table, and the saturated thickness of the aquifer were prepared from data from the well files of the Colorado Division of Water Resources. The base of the aquifer generally is topographically higher than the valleys of the North Fork Gunnison River and Leroux Creek, and direct hydraulic connection of the aquifer to North Fork Gunnison River and Leroux Creek is limited. The aquifer is recharged primarily by infiltration of surface water diverted for irrigation. Ground water discharges to seeps and springs and through slope deposits at the boundaries of the aquifer. Data from the well files also were used to estimate the specific capacity of wells and to estimate the transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.
A water budget was used to estimate recharge to and discharge from the aquifer. Although storage within the aquifer likely varies seasonally and from year to year, it was assumed that there were no long-term changes in ground-water storage. Estimated average annual recharge to and discharge from the aquifer during November 1998 through October 2006 were about 30,767 acre-feet per year. Although sufficient ground water is available on Rogers Mesa for additional domestic water supplies, conversion of irrigated land to residential land use likely would reduce recharge to the aquifer, affecting the sustainability of ground-water supplies on Rogers Mesa. Stream-depletion analyses indicate that the ground water in the aquifer likely would be considered tributary ground water and additional uses of ground water to supply new subdivisions likely would require implementation of augmentation plans.
Although sufficient ground water is available on Rogers Mesa for additional domestic water supplies, conversion of irrigated land to residential land use likely would reduce recharge to the aquifer, affecting the sustainability of ground-water supplies on Rogers Mesa. Stream-depletion analyses indicate that the ground water in the aquifer likely would be considered tributary ground water and additional uses of ground water to supply new subdivisions likely would require implementation of augmentation plans.
Although the dissolved solids and dissolved sulfate concentrations in ground water from Rogers Mesa aquifer commonly exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels for drinking-water supplies, the quality of ground water from the aquifer generally is suitable for residential use. Concentrations of total nitrogen (nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen) in ground water ranged from 0.38 to 3.2 milligrams per liter and were less than the State of Colorado maximum contaminant level of 10 milligrams per liter. Concentrations of selenium from seeps and springs at the boundaries of the aquifer commonly exceeded 50 micrograms per liter, the State of Colorado maximum contaminant level for drinking-water supplies.
This preliminary evaluation of ground-water supplies on Rogers Mesa could be improved with the collection of additional data including: additional mapping of hydrogeologic features; more accurate locations and altitudes of wells; accurate estimates of water-budget components; measurements of ground-water levels; and collection and analyses of ground-water samples. The use of numerical models of ground-water flow could improve evaluations of the potential effects of changes in land and water use on the water budget, aquifer storage, stream depletion, and well interference.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/sir20085020","isbn":"9781411321311","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with Delta County, Colorado","usgsCitation":"Watts, K.R., 2008, Availability, sustainability, and suitability of ground water, Rogers Mesa, Delta County, Colorado: Types of analyses and data for use in subdivision water-supply reports: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5020, vi, 54 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20085020.","productDescription":"vi, 54 p.","costCenters":[{"id":191,"text":"Colorado Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":430167,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_83598.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":11303,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5020/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":121189,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/sir_2008_5020.jpg"}],"country":"United States","state":"Colorado","county":"Delta County","otherGeospatial":"Rogers Mesa","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -108.25,38.666666666666664 ], [ -108.25,39.083333333333336 ], [ -107.41666666666667,39.083333333333336 ], [ -107.41666666666667,38.666666666666664 ], [ -108.25,38.666666666666664 ] ] ] } } ] }","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a82e4b07f02db64ae96","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Watts, Kenneth R. krwatts@usgs.gov","contributorId":1647,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Watts","given":"Kenneth","email":"krwatts@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"R.","affiliations":[{"id":191,"text":"Colorado Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294993,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":81263,"text":"sir20085024 - 2008 - Effects of habitat characteristics and water quality on macroinvertebrate communities along the Neversink River in southeastern New York, 1991-2001","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2024-01-09T21:25:05.806025","indexId":"sir20085024","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-16T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":334,"text":"Scientific Investigations Report","code":"SIR","onlineIssn":"2328-0328","printIssn":"2328-031X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2008-5024","title":"Effects of habitat characteristics and water quality on macroinvertebrate communities along the Neversink River in southeastern New York, 1991-2001","docAbstract":"The Neversink River, in the Catskill Mountains of southeastern New York State, feeds the Neversink Reservoir, which diverts 85 percent of the river’s flow to New York City. Acidification of several headwater reaches has affected macroinvertebrate assemblages throughout the river system above the reservoir, and the alteration of flow conditions below the reservoir dam has affected macroinvertebrate assemblages for at least 10 kilometers downstream from the reservoir. In 1999, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with The Nature Conservancy, compiled data from 30 stream reaches to quantify the effects of acidification and of the reservoir on the structure and function of macroinvertebrate assemblages throughout the Neversink River.
Acidic headwater reaches supported greater numbers of acid-tolerant chironomid taxa and fewer numbers of acid-sensitive Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera than neutral reaches, and fewer scraper individuals and more shredder individuals. The 14 reaches below the reservoir, with sharply decreased flows and altered flow patterns compared to reaches above the reservoir, supported more Chironomidae and fewer Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera than the upper reaches; they also had greater numbers of shredder individuals and fewer scraper and filterer individuals than reaches above the reservoir. Water-quality variables such as pH and aluminum concentration appear to have affected macroinvertebrate assemblages more strongly in the headwaters than below the reservoir, whereas physical-habitat variables such as mean channel width and water temperature have affected these assemblages more strongly downstream from the reservoir than in the headwaters. The water-quality changes due to acidification, combined with the decreased flows and lowered water temperatures below the reservoir, have disrupted downstream continuum of macroinvertebrate communities that would normally be observed from the headwaters to the mouth. The information presented herein provides a basis for further evaluation of the Neversink and similar river systems, and for assessment of the effectiveness of future conservation efforts.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","doi":"10.3133/sir20085024","isbn":"9781411321618","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, New York City Department of Environmental Protection, and the Towns of Thompson and Mamakating","usgsCitation":"Ernst, A., Baldigo, B.P., Schuler, G.E., Apse, C.D., Carter, J.L., and Lester, G.T., 2008, Effects of habitat characteristics and water quality on macroinvertebrate communities along the Neversink River in southeastern New York, 1991-2001: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5024, iv, 17 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20085024.","productDescription":"iv, 17 p.","temporalStart":"1991-01-01","temporalEnd":"2001-12-31","costCenters":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":474,"text":"New York Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":195782,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":11304,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5024/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":424238,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_83605.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"country":"United States","state":"New York","otherGeospatial":"Neversink River","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Polygon\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -74.375,\n 41.3433\n ],\n [\n -74.375,\n 42.0283\n ],\n [\n -74.75,\n 42.0283\n ],\n [\n -74.75,\n 41.3433\n ],\n [\n -74.375,\n 41.3433\n ]\n ]\n ]\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4adbe4b07f02db685b7b","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Ernst, Anne G.","contributorId":37825,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Ernst","given":"Anne G.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294997,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Baldigo, Barry P. 0000-0002-9862-9119 bbaldigo@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9862-9119","contributorId":1234,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Baldigo","given":"Barry","email":"bbaldigo@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[{"id":474,"text":"New York Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294994,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Schuler, George E.","contributorId":37005,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Schuler","given":"George","email":"","middleInitial":"E.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294996,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Apse, Colin D.","contributorId":54680,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Apse","given":"Colin","email":"","middleInitial":"D.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294999,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Carter, James L. 0000-0002-0104-9776 jlcarter@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0104-9776","contributorId":3278,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Carter","given":"James","email":"jlcarter@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":438,"text":"National Research Program - Western Branch","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294995,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5},{"text":"Lester, Gary T.","contributorId":45799,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Lester","given":"Gary","email":"","middleInitial":"T.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294998,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":6}]}} ,{"id":81243,"text":"sir20075276 - 2008 - Mobility statistics and automated hazard mapping for debris flows and rock avalanches","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-21T18:42:27.234998","indexId":"sir20075276","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-15T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":334,"text":"Scientific Investigations Report","code":"SIR","onlineIssn":"2328-0328","printIssn":"2328-031X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2007-5276","title":"Mobility statistics and automated hazard mapping for debris flows and rock avalanches","docAbstract":"Power-law equations that are physically motivated and statistically tested and calibrated provide a basis for forecasting areas likely to be inundated by debris flows, rock avalanches, and lahars with diverse volumes. The equations A=α1V2/3 and B=α2V2/3 are based on the postulate that the maximum valley cross-sectional area (A) and total valley planimetric area (B) likely to be inundated by a flow depend only on its volume (V) and the topography of the flow path. Testing of these equations involves determining whether or not they fit data for documented flows satisfactorily, and calibration entails determining best-fit values of the coefficients α1 and α2 for debris flows, rock avalanches, and lahars. This report describes statistical testing and calibration of the equations by using field data compiled from many sources, and it describes application of the equations to delineation of debris-flow hazard zones.
Statistical results show that for each type of flow (debris flows, rock avalanches, and lahars), the dependence of A and B on V is described well by power laws with exponents equal to 2/3. This value of the exponent produces fits that are effectively indistinguishable from the best fits obtained by using adjustable power-law exponents. Statistically calibrated values of the coefficients α1 and α2 provide scale-invariant indices of the relative mobilities of rock avalanches (α1 = 0.2, α2 = 20), nonvolcanic debris flows (α1 = 0.1, α2 = 20), and lahars (α1 = 0.05, α2 = 200). These values show, for example, that a lahar of specified volume can be expected to inundate a planimetric area ten times larger than that inundated by a rock avalanche or nonvolcanic debris flow of the same volume.
The utility of the calibrated debris-flow inundation equations A=0.1V2/3 and B=20V2/3 is demonstrated by using them within the GIS program LAHARZ to delineate nested hazard zones for future debris flows in an area bordering the Umpqua River in the south-central Oregon Coast Range. This application requires use of high-resolution topographic data derived form LIDAR surveys, knowledge of local geology to specify a suitable range of prospective debris-flow volumes, and development and use of a new algorithm for identification of prospective debris-flow source areas in finely dissected terrain.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/sir20075276","usgsCitation":"Griswold, J.P., and Iverson, R.M., 2008, Mobility statistics and automated hazard mapping for debris flows and rock avalanches (Version 1.0 May 1, 2008; Version 1.1 April 24, 2014): U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5276, v, 59 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20075276.","productDescription":"v, 59 p.","numberOfPages":"67","onlineOnly":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":195444,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/sir20075276.jpg"},{"id":414477,"rank":4,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_99926.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":11286,"rank":3,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5276/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":286586,"rank":2,"type":{"id":11,"text":"Document"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5276/sir2007-5276.pdf"}],"country":"United States","state":"Oregon","otherGeospatial":"Umpqua River valley study area","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -123.89132484031435,\n 43.66459135919803\n ],\n [\n -123.89132484031435,\n 43.63536879540359\n ],\n [\n -123.84416678308935,\n 43.63536879540359\n ],\n [\n -123.84416678308935,\n 43.66459135919803\n ],\n [\n -123.89132484031435,\n 43.66459135919803\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","edition":"Version 1.0 May 1, 2008; Version 1.1 April 24, 2014","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a26e4b07f02db60fab6","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Griswold, Julia P. griswold@usgs.gov","contributorId":4148,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Griswold","given":"Julia","email":"griswold@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"P.","affiliations":[],"preferred":true,"id":294945,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Iverson, Richard M. 0000-0002-7369-3819 riverson@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7369-3819","contributorId":536,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Iverson","given":"Richard","email":"riverson@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"M.","affiliations":[{"id":617,"text":"Volcano Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":615,"text":"Volcano Hazards Program","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294944,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2}]}} ,{"id":81250,"text":"sir20085028 - 2008 - Environmental factors and flow paths related to Escherichia coli concentrations at two beaches on Lake St. Clair, Michigan, 2002–2005","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2023-03-22T21:23:11.28322","indexId":"sir20085028","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-15T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":334,"text":"Scientific Investigations Report","code":"SIR","onlineIssn":"2328-0328","printIssn":"2328-031X","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2008-5028","displayTitle":"Environmental factors and flow paths related to Escherichia coli concentrations at two beaches on Lake St. Clair, Michigan, 2002–2005","title":"Environmental factors and flow paths related to Escherichia coli concentrations at two beaches on Lake St. Clair, Michigan, 2002–2005","docAbstract":"Regression analyses and hydrodynamic modeling were used to identify environmental factors and flow paths associated with Escherichia coli (E. coli) concentrations at Memorial and Metropolitan Beaches on Lake St. Clair in Macomb County, Mich. Lake St. Clair is part of the binational waterway between the United States and Canada that connects Lake Huron with Lake Erie in the Great Lakes Basin. Linear regression, regression-tree, and logistic regression models were developed from E. coli concentration and ancillary environmental data.
Linear regression models on log10 E. coli concentrations indicated that rainfall prior to sampling, water temperature, and turbidity were positively associated with bacteria concentrations at both beaches. Flow from Clinton River, changes in water levels, wind conditions, and log10 E. coli concentrations 2 days before or after the target bacteria concentrations were statistically significant at one or both beaches. In addition, various interaction terms were significant at Memorial Beach. Linear regression models for both beaches explained only about 30 percent of the variability in log10 E. coli concentrations.
Regression-tree models were developed from data from both Memorial and Metropolitan Beaches but were found to have limited predictive capability in this study. The results indicate that too few observations were available to develop reliable regression-tree models.
Linear logistic models were developed to estimate the probability of E. coli concentrations exceeding 300 most probable number (MPN) per 100 milliliters (mL). Rainfall amounts before bacteria sampling were positively associated with exceedance probabilities at both beaches. Flow of Clinton River, turbidity, and log10 E. coli concentrations measured before or after the target E. coli measurements were related to exceedances at one or both beaches. The linear logistic models were effective in estimating bacteria exceedances at both beaches. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to determine cut points for maximizing the true positive rate prediction while minimizing the false positive rate.
A two-dimensional hydrodynamic model was developed to simulate horizontal current patterns on Lake St. Clair in response to wind, flow, and water-level conditions at model boundaries. Simulated velocity fields were used to track hypothetical massless particles backward in time from the beaches along flow paths toward source areas. Reverse particle tracking for idealized steady-state conditions shows changes in expected flow paths and traveltimes with wind speeds and directions from 24 sectors. The results indicate that three to four sets of contiguous wind sectors have similar effects on flow paths in the vicinity of the beaches. In addition, reverse particle tracking was used for transient conditions to identify expected flow paths for 10 E. coli sampling events in 2004. These results demonstrate the ability to track hypothetical particles from the beaches, backward in time, to likely source areas. This ability, coupled with a greater frequency of bacteria sampling, may provide insight into changes in bacteria concentrations between source and sink areas.
","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/sir20085028","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality","usgsCitation":"Holtschlag, D.J., Shively, D., Whitman, R.L., Haack, S.K., and Fogarty, L., 2008, Environmental factors and flow paths related to Escherichia coli concentrations at two beaches on Lake St. Clair, Michigan, 2002–2005: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5028, vi, 38 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20085028.","productDescription":"vi, 38 p.","onlineOnly":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":324,"text":"Great Lakes Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":195761,"rank":1,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":414584,"rank":3,"type":{"id":36,"text":"NGMDB Index Page"},"url":"https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_83596.htm","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}},{"id":11293,"rank":2,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5028/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"country":"Canada, United States","otherGeospatial":"Lake St. Clair","geographicExtents":"{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n {\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"coordinates\": [\n [\n [\n -82.87135617571595,\n 42.70757602501513\n ],\n [\n -82.87135617571595,\n 42.41419409328131\n ],\n [\n -82.58852288495791,\n 42.41419409328131\n ],\n [\n -82.58852288495791,\n 42.70757602501513\n ],\n [\n -82.87135617571595,\n 42.70757602501513\n ]\n ]\n ],\n \"type\": \"Polygon\"\n }\n }\n ]\n}","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aa8e4b07f02db667401","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Holtschlag, David J. 0000-0001-5185-4928 dholtschlag@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5185-4928","contributorId":5447,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Holtschlag","given":"David","email":"dholtschlag@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"J.","affiliations":[{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294962,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1},{"text":"Shively, Dawn","contributorId":93014,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Shively","given":"Dawn","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294964,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":2},{"text":"Whitman, Richard L. rwhitman@usgs.gov","contributorId":542,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Whitman","given":"Richard","email":"rwhitman@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"L.","affiliations":[{"id":324,"text":"Great Lakes Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294960,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":3},{"text":"Haack, Sheridan K. skhaack@usgs.gov","contributorId":1982,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Haack","given":"Sheridan","email":"skhaack@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"K.","affiliations":[{"id":382,"text":"Michigan Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":true,"id":294961,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":4},{"text":"Fogarty, Lisa R.","contributorId":74074,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Fogarty","given":"Lisa R.","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294963,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":5}]}} ,{"id":81235,"text":"fs20083040 - 2008 - Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Trace Contamination of Streams and Beaches","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-08T17:16:22","indexId":"fs20083040","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-14T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":313,"text":"Fact Sheet","code":"FS","onlineIssn":"2327-6932","printIssn":"2327-6916","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2008-3040","title":"Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Trace Contamination of Streams and Beaches","docAbstract":"Concentrations of fecal-indicator bacteria in urban streams and ocean beaches in and around Santa Barbara occasionally can exceed public-health standards for recreation. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), working with the City of Santa Barbara, has used multi-disciplinary science to trace the sources of the bacteria. This research is helping local agencies take steps to improve recreational water quality.\r\n\r\nThe USGS used an approach that combined traditional hydrologic and microbiological data, with state-of-the-art genetic, molecular, and chemical tracer analysis. This research integrated physical data on streamflow, ground water, and near-shore oceanography, and made extensive use of modern geophysical and isotopic techniques. Using those techniques, the USGS was able to evaluate the movement of water and the exchange of ground water with near-shore ocean water.\r\n\r\nThe USGS has found that most fecal bacteria in the urban streams came from storm-drain discharges, with the highest concentrations occurring during storm flow. During low streamflow, the concentrations varied as much as three-fold, owing to variable contribution of non-point sources such as outdoor water use and urban runoff to streamflow. Fecal indicator bacteria along ocean beaches were from both stream discharge to the ocean and from non-point sources such as bird fecal material that accumulates in kelp and sand at the high-tide line. Low levels of human-specific Bacteroides, suggesting fecal material from a human source, were consistently detected on area beaches. One potential source, a local sewer line buried beneath the beach, was found not to be responsible for the fecal bacteria.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Geological Survey (U.S.)","doi":"10.3133/fs20083040","usgsCitation":"Nickles, J., 2008, Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Trace Contamination of Streams and Beaches: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2008-3040, 1 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20083040.","productDescription":"1 p.","costCenters":[{"id":154,"text":"California Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":206,"text":"Cooperative Water Program","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":121179,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/fs_2008_3040.jpg"},{"id":11278,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3040/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b32e4b07f02db6b4858","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nickles, James","contributorId":35401,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nickles","given":"James","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294901,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":81231,"text":"fs20083038 - 2008 - Providing Data and Modeling to Help Manage Water Supplies","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-08T17:16:22","indexId":"fs20083038","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-14T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":313,"text":"Fact Sheet","code":"FS","onlineIssn":"2327-6932","printIssn":"2327-6916","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2008-3038","title":"Providing Data and Modeling to Help Manage Water Supplies","docAbstract":"The Sonoma County Water Agency (SCWA) and other local water purveyors have partnered with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to assess hydrologic conditions and to quan-tify the county-wide interconnections between surface water and ground water.\r\n\r\nThrough this partnership, USGS scientists have completed assessments of the geohydrology and geochemistry of the Sonoma and Alexander Valley ground-water basins. Now, the USGS is constructing a detailed ground-water flow model of the Santa Rosa Plain. It will be used to help identify strategies for surface-water/ground-water management and help to ensure long-term viability of the water supply.\r\n\r\nThe USGS is also working with the SCWA to help meet future demand in the face of possible new restrictions on its main source of water, the Russian River. SCWA draws water from the alluvial aquifer underlying and adjacent to the Russian River and may want to extend riverbank filtration facilities to new areas. USGS scientists are conducting research to charac-terize riverbank filtration processes and changes in water quality during reduced river flows.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Geological Survey (U.S.)","doi":"10.3133/fs20083038","usgsCitation":"Nickles, J., 2008, Providing Data and Modeling to Help Manage Water Supplies: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2008-3038, 1 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20083038.","productDescription":"1 p.","costCenters":[{"id":154,"text":"California Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":206,"text":"Cooperative Water Program","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":121253,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/fs_2008_3038.jpg"},{"id":11274,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3038/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4aafe4b07f02db66cd95","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nickles, James","contributorId":35401,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nickles","given":"James","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294897,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":81229,"text":"pp1728 - 2008 - Questa baseline and pre-mining ground-water quality investigation. 25. Summary of results and baseline and pre-mining ground-water geochemistry, Red River Valley, Taos County, New Mexico, 2001-2005","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2019-08-20T12:36:42","indexId":"pp1728","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-14T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":331,"text":"Professional Paper","code":"PP","onlineIssn":"2330-7102","printIssn":"1044-9612","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"1728","title":"Questa baseline and pre-mining ground-water quality investigation. 25. Summary of results and baseline and pre-mining ground-water geochemistry, Red River Valley, Taos County, New Mexico, 2001-2005","docAbstract":"Active and inactive mine sites are challenging to remediate because of their complexity and scale. Regulations meant to achieve environmental restoration at mine sites are equally challenging to apply for the same reasons. The goal of environmental restoration should be to restore contaminated mine sites, as closely as possible, to pre-mining conditions. Metalliferous mine sites in the Western United States are commonly located in hydrothermally altered and mineralized terrain in which pre-mining concentrations of metals were already anomalously high. Typically, those pre-mining concentrations were not measured, but sometimes they can be reconstructed using scientific inference.\r\n\r\nMolycorp?s Questa molybdenum mine in the Red River Valley, northern New Mexico, is located near the margin of the Questa caldera in a highly mineralized region. The State of New Mexico requires that ground-water quality standards be met on closure unless it can be shown that potential contaminant concentrations were higher than the standards before mining. No ground water at the mine site had been chemically analyzed before mining. The aim of this investigation, in cooperation with the New Mexico Environment Department (NMED), is to infer the pre-mining ground-water quality by an examination of the geologic, hydrologic, and geochemical controls on ground-water quality in a nearby, or proximal, analog site in the Straight Creek drainage basin. Twenty-seven reports contain details of investigations on the geological, hydrological, and geochemical characteristics of the Red River Valley that are summarized in this report. These studies include mapping of surface mineralogy by Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging Spectrometry (AVIRIS); compilations of historical surface- and ground- water quality data; synoptic/tracer studies with mass loading and temporal water-quality trends of the Red River; reaction-transport modeling of the Red River; environmental geology of the Red River Valley; lake-sediment chemistry; geomorphology and its effect on ground-water flow; geophysical studies on depth to ground-water table and depth to bedrock; bedrock fractures and their potential influence on ground-water flow; leaching studies of scars and waste-rock piles; mineralogy and mineral chemistry and their effect on ground-water quality; debris-flow hazards; hydrology and water balance for the Red River Valley; ground-water geochemistry of selected wells undisturbed by mining in the Red River Valley; and quality assurance and quality control of water analyses. Studies aimed specifically at the Straight Creek natural-analog site include electrical surveys; high-resolution seismic survey; age-dating with tritium/helium; water budget; ground-water hydrology and geochemistry; and comparison of mineralogy and lithology to that of the mine site.\r\n\r\nThe highly mineralized and hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks of the Red River Valley contain several percent pyrite in the quartz-sericite-pyrite (QSP) alteration zone, which weather naturally to acid-sulfate surface and ground waters that discharge to the Red River. Weathering of waste-rock piles containing pyrite also contributes acid water that eventually discharges into the Red River. These acid discharges are neutralized by circumneutral-pH, carbonate-buffered surface and ground waters of the Red River. The buffering capacity of the Red River, however, decreases from the town of Red River to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) gaging station near Questa. During short, but intense, storm events, the buffering capacity is exceeded and the river becomes acid from the rapid flushing of acidic materials from natural scar areas.\r\n\r\nThe lithology, mineralogy, elevation, and hydrology of the Straight Creek proximal analog site were found to closely approximate those of the mine site with the exception of the mine site?s Sulphur Gulch catchment. Sulphur Gulch contains three subcatchments?upper Sulphur Gulch, Blind Gulch, and Spring Gulc","language":"English","publisher":"U.S. Geological Survey","publisherLocation":"Reston, VA","doi":"10.3133/pp1728","collaboration":"Prepared in cooperation with the New Mexico Environment Department","usgsCitation":"Nordstrom, D.K., 2008, Questa baseline and pre-mining ground-water quality investigation. 25. Summary of results and baseline and pre-mining ground-water geochemistry, Red River Valley, Taos County, New Mexico, 2001-2005 (Version 1.0): U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1728, Report: xii, 111 p.; Plate: 46 x 24 inches, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1728.","productDescription":"Report: xii, 111 p.; Plate: 46 x 24 inches","additionalOnlineFiles":"Y","temporalStart":"2001-01-01","temporalEnd":"2005-12-31","costCenters":[{"id":589,"text":"Toxic Substances Hydrology Program","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":595,"text":"U.S. Geological Survey","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":190692,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":11271,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1728/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"country":"United States","state":"New Mexico","geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ -105.58333333333333,36.65 ], [ -105.58333333333333,36.766666666666666 ], [ -105.38333333333334,36.766666666666666 ], [ -105.38333333333334,36.65 ], [ -105.58333333333333,36.65 ] ] ] } } ] }","edition":"Version 1.0","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a81e4b07f02db64a107","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nordstrom, D. Kirk 0000-0003-3283-5136 dkn@usgs.gov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3283-5136","contributorId":749,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nordstrom","given":"D.","email":"dkn@usgs.gov","middleInitial":"Kirk","affiliations":[{"id":5044,"text":"National Research Program - Central Branch","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":37277,"text":"WMA - Earth System Processes Division","active":true,"usgs":true}],"preferred":false,"id":294894,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":81232,"text":"fs20083037 - 2008 - Research to More Effectively Manage Critical Ground-Water Basins","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2012-03-08T17:16:27","indexId":"fs20083037","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-14T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":313,"text":"Fact Sheet","code":"FS","onlineIssn":"2327-6932","printIssn":"2327-6916","active":true,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"2008-3037","title":"Research to More Effectively Manage Critical Ground-Water Basins","docAbstract":"As the regional management agency for two of the most heavily used ground-water basins in California, the Water Replenishment District of Southern California (WRD) plays a vital role in sheparding the water resources of southern Los Angeles County. WRD is using the results of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) studies to help more effectively manage the Central and West Coast basins in the most efficient, cost-effective way.\r\n\r\nIn partnership with WRD, the USGS is using the latest research tools to study the geohydrology and geochemistry of the two basins. USGS scientists are:\r\n\r\n*Drilling and collecting detailed data from over 40 multiple-well monitoring sites, \r\n*Conducting regional geohydrologic and geochemical analyses, \r\n*Developing and applying a computer simulation model of regional ground-water flow.\r\n\r\nUSGS science is providing a more detailed understanding of ground-water flow and quality. This research has enabled WRD to more effectively manage the basins. It has helped the District improve the efficiency of its spreading ponds and barrier injection wells, which replenish the aquifers and control seawater intrusion into the ground-water system.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Geological Survey (U.S.)","doi":"10.3133/fs20083037","usgsCitation":"Nickles, J., 2008, Research to More Effectively Manage Critical Ground-Water Basins: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2008-3037, 1 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20083037.","productDescription":"1 p.","costCenters":[{"id":154,"text":"California Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":206,"text":"Cooperative Water Program","active":false,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":121216,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/fs_2008_3037.jpg"},{"id":11275,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3037/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4a25e4b07f02db60eb57","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Nickles, James","contributorId":35401,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Nickles","given":"James","email":"","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294898,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ,{"id":81227,"text":"ds333 - 2008 - Streamflow Characteristics of Streams in the Helmand Basin, Afghanistan","interactions":[],"lastModifiedDate":"2018-03-13T12:16:56","indexId":"ds333","displayToPublicDate":"2008-05-13T00:00:00","publicationYear":"2008","noYear":false,"publicationType":{"id":18,"text":"Report"},"publicationSubtype":{"id":5,"text":"USGS Numbered Series"},"seriesTitle":{"id":310,"text":"Data Series","code":"DS","onlineIssn":"2327-638X","printIssn":"2327-0271","active":false,"publicationSubtype":{"id":5}},"seriesNumber":"333","title":"Streamflow Characteristics of Streams in the Helmand Basin, Afghanistan","docAbstract":"Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all historical streamflow-gaging stations for the Helmand Basin upstream from the Sistan Wetlands are presented in this report. The summaries for each streamflow-gaging station include (1) manuscript (station description), (2) graph of the annual mean discharge for the period of record, (3) statistics of monthly and annual mean discharges, (4) graph of the annual flow duration, (5) monthly and annual flow duration, (6) probability of occurrence of annual high discharges, (7) probability of occurrence of annual low discharges, (8) probability of occurrence of seasonal low discharges, (9) annual peak discharge and corresponding gage height for the period of record, and (10) monthly and annual mean discharges for the period of record.","language":"ENGLISH","publisher":"Geological Survey (U.S.)","doi":"10.3133/ds333","collaboration":"Prepared under the auspices of the U.S. Agency for International Development","usgsCitation":"Williams-Sether, T., 2008, Streamflow Characteristics of Streams in the Helmand Basin, Afghanistan (Version 1.0): U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 333, vi, 341 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ds333.","productDescription":"vi, 341 p.","onlineOnly":"Y","costCenters":[{"id":478,"text":"North Dakota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true},{"id":34685,"text":"Dakota Water Science Center","active":true,"usgs":true}],"links":[{"id":190600,"rank":0,"type":{"id":24,"text":"Thumbnail"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/thumbnails/usgs_thumb.jpg"},{"id":11269,"rank":100,"type":{"id":15,"text":"Index Page"},"url":"https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/333/","linkFileType":{"id":5,"text":"html"}}],"geographicExtents":"{ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": [ { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Polygon\", \"coordinates\": [ [ [ 58,25 ], [ 58,4 ], [ 71,4 ], [ 71,25 ], [ 58,25 ] ] ] } } ] }","edition":"Version 1.0","noUsgsAuthors":false,"publicationStatus":"PW","scienceBaseUri":"4f4e4b15e4b07f02db6a4fda","contributors":{"authors":[{"text":"Williams-Sether, Tara","contributorId":57846,"corporation":false,"usgs":true,"family":"Williams-Sether","given":"Tara","affiliations":[],"preferred":false,"id":294892,"contributorType":{"id":1,"text":"Authors"},"rank":1}]}} ]}