By John D. Hem
Preface
Abstract
Introduction
Purpose and scope
Arrangement of topics
Properties and structure of water
Composition of the Earth’s crust
The hydrosphere
The atmosphere
Principles and processes controlling composition of natural water
Thermodynamics of aqueous systems
Chemical reactions
Reversible and irreversible reactions in water chemistry
Chemical equilibrium-the law of mass action
Ionic activity
Calculation of activity coefficients at higher ionic strength
Effects of temperature and pressure on chemical equilibria
Solution of calcite
Free energy and the equilibrium constant
Electrochemical equilibrium
Disequilibrium indices
Thermodynamics of nonequilibrium systems
Rates of chemical reactions
Rate constants: order of reaction
Effect of temperature on reaction rate
Chemical kinetics and the law of mass action
Solubility concepts
Solubility product
Reactions at interfaces
Gas-liquid interfaces
Liquid-solid interfaces
Adsorption equations
Cation exchange capacity, selectivity
Electrical double-layer models
Membrane effects
Clay as semipermeable membranes
Relationships among environmental factors and natural-water composition
Climate
Geologic effects
Biochemical factors
Ecology applied to natural water
Influence of soil and soil-forming processes
Aquatic biota
The hydrologic cycle
Sources of solutes in the atmosphere
Composition of atmospheric precipitation
Influence of humans
Chemical thermodynamic models applied to natural water
The phase rule
Some characteristics of ground-water systems
Surface water systems-rivers
Lakes and reservoirs
Estuaries
Water chemistry and movement in the unsaturated zone
Geochemical cycles
Evaluation of water composition
Collection of water samples
Sampling of river water
Comparability of records
Lake and reservoir sampling
Ground-water sampling
Completeness of sample coverage
Analysis of water samples
Field testing of water
Geophysical indicators of ground-water quality
Laboratory procedures
Expression of water analyses
Hypothetical combinations
Ionic statement
Determinations included in analyses
Units used in reporting analyses
Weight-per-weight units
Weight-per-volume units
Equivalent-weight units
Composition of anhydrous residue
Concentration in terms of calcium carbonate
Comparison of units of expression
Forms of dissolved material-complexes, ion pairs, and polymers
Significance of properties and constituents reported in water analyses
Nature of the dissolved state
Characterization of suspended particulate material
Hydrogen-ion activity (pH)
Buffered solutions
Range of pH of natural water
Measurement and interpretation of pH
Specific electrical conductance
Units for reporting conductance
Physical basis of conductance
Range of conductance values
Accuracy and reproducibility
Silica
Forms of dissolved silica
Solubility controls
Occurrence in natural water
Aluminum
Sources of aluminum in water
Species in solution
Solubility controls
Occurrence of aluminum in water
Iron
Sources of iron
Species of iron in natural water
Solubility calculations: pH-Eh diagrams
Reaction rates
Roles of bacteria in solution and precipitation of iron
Occurrence of iron in water
Manganese
Sources of manganese
Form of dissolved manganese
Quantification of manganese redox processes
Occurrence of manganese in water
Calcium
Sources of calcium
Solute species
Chemical controls of calcium concentration
Occurrence of calcium in water
Magnesium
Sources of magnesium
Form of dissolved magnesium
Chemical controls of magnesium concentration
Occurrence of magnesium in water
Sodium
Sources of sodium
Dissolved species
Solubility controls
Occurrence of sodium in water
Potassium
Sources of potassium
Control mechanisms for potassium concentration
Occurrence of potassium in water
Alkalinity and acidity
Alkalinity
Sources of alkalinity
The carbon cycle
Occurrence of bicarbonate and carbonate
Acidity
Sources of acidity
Occurrence of acidity in water
Sulfur
Redox properties of sulfur
Sources of sulfur
The sulfur cycle
Forms of dissolved sulfate
Sulfate solubility
Occurrence of sulfate in water
Occurrence of sulfide in water
Chloride
Sources of chloride
Occurrence and chemistry of chloride in water
Accuracy of determination
Fluoride
Sources of fluoride in water
Chemistry of fluoride in water
Range of concentration
Nitrogen
Sources and chemistry of nitrogen
Occurrence of nitrogen in water
Phosphorus
Chemistry of phosphate in water
Occurrence of phosphate in water
Nitrogen and phosphorus as nutrients
Boron
Sources of boron
Chemistry and occurrence of boron in water
Minor and trace constituents
Availability of analytical data
Sample collection and treatment
Sources of information
Minor elements in seawater
Anthropogenic factors
Occurrence of minor constituents
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals
Beryllium
Strontium
Barium
Transition metals
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Cobalt
Nickel
Molybdenum
Other metallic elements
Copper
Silver
Zinc
Cadmium
Mercury
Lead
Nonmetallic elements
Arsenic
Antimony
Selenium
Bromine
Iodine
Radioactive elements
Uranium
Radium
Radon
Thorium
Other radioactive nuclides
Lead-210
Tritium
Carbon-14
Strontium-90
Plutonium and other transuranium elements
Organic constituents
Dissolved and total organic carbon
Indirect evaluation of DOC effects
Color
Synthetic organics
Dissolved gases
Inert gases
Oxygen
Hydrocarbon gases
Chemically related properties
Residue on evaporation
Significance of determination
Dissolved solids-computed
Chemical factors in dissolved-solids computations
Oxygen demand and other evaluations of organic pollution load
Biochemical oxygen demand (B/D)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Hardness
Range of hardness concentration
Redox potential
Range of redox potential in natural water
Sodium-adsorption ratio (SAAR)
Density
Stable isotopes
Organization and study of water-analysis data
Evaluation of the water analysis
Accuracy and reproducibility
Accuracy checks
Significant figures
General evaluations of areal water quality
Inspection and comparison
Ion ratios and water types
Statistical treatment of water-quality data
Averages
Frequency distributions
Solute correlations
Graphical methods of representing analyses
Ion-concentration diagrams
Trilinear plotting systems
Methods of extrapolating chemical data
Water-quality hydrographs
Water quality in relation to stream discharge
Water-quality maps
Map symbols
Isogram maps
Water-quality profiles
Relation of water quality to lithology
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Resistates
Hydrolyzates
Precipitates
Evaporites
Metamorphic rocks
Influence of activities of humans
Saltwater intrusion
Application of water-quality measurements to quantitative hydrology
Mathematical simulations-flow models
Relation of quality of water to use
Domestic uses and public supplies
Agricultural use
Industrial use
Recreational and esthetic uses
Water-management concepts and problems
Selected references
Index 255
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