The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) provides science and data on seabed mineral resources and ecosystems, as well as any potential hazards associated with extraction. The Nation relies on minerals for infrastructure, technology, manufacturing, and energy production. Critical minerals (USGS, 2022a) are essential to the economic and national security of the United States and have a supply chain vulnerable to disruption.

For decades, USGS scientific innovation has contributed to the delineation of seabed mineral resources, the mechanisms of seabed mineral formation, and the environmental impacts of resource extraction. Since 1962, the USGS has also led scientific inquiries into the potential for deep sea mining. By providing impartial science on seabed minerals and their environmental setting in the deep oceans, the USGS enables decision-makers to evaluate the best practices for mineral resource development.

What Is the Role of the USGS in Understanding Seabed Minerals?

In many regions of the global ocean, limited data are available regarding the abundance, composition, environmental setting, and associated ecology of seabed minerals. The USGS provides cutting-edge, impartial data on seabed minerals by creating prospective maps of the places where these minerals may occur, investigating the processes that lead to specific enrichments within these minerals, and studying the physical and chemical implications of potential commercial extraction. The USGS also conducts multidisciplinary studies of the marine and seabed environments where these minerals exist. Such investigations provide data and insights that are essential for decision-makers and the public to understand and make informed decisions regarding potential resource extraction.

The USGS provides the Nation with expertise in many aspects of global seabed minerals through a collaboration of three Mission Areas:

USGS activities focused on seabed mineral studies complement the Survey’s work on land-based minerals and mineral supply chains. USGS data collection and analysis are used to evaluate and identify minerals that are critical to the economic and national security interests of the United States. The USGS also analyzes mineral markets and provides statistics on mineral commodities in all sectors of the U.S. economy, including analysis in support of national security.

In addition to collaboration within the three Mission Areas, the USGS collaborates on targeted studies of seabed minerals and associated ecosystems with the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, which has regulatory authority for mineral extraction on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which has regulatory authority for U.S. activities related to mineral extraction on the high seas. Such studies provide crucial data that inform the regulatory decisions of other agencies.

Which Minerals Are Found in Seabed Environments?

Minerals can be found in every ocean basin, from the coastal zone to the deep ocean (USGS, 2022b). In the deep ocean, exploration is ongoing for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulfides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. These minerals are considered a potential future source of many elements, including some elements that are designated as critical minerals (table 1). Critical minerals that are abundant in sea-floor deposits include nickel, cobalt, and manganese. These minerals are crucial components in stainless steel, superalloys, and batteries. The rare earth elements and yttrium, often abbreviated as REY, are a group of 17 elements. Two of these, neodymium and dysprosium, are used in permanent magnets and lasers.

Where Are Seabed Minerals Found?

Seabed minerals occur in every ocean basin, including within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (Hein and others, 2005), which is larger than the land area of the United States, as well as the Extended Continental Shelf (U.S. Department of State, 2023). However, as of 2025, only a few of these locations have sufficient data to determine whether they have deposits, defined as mineral concentrations that could be viable for commercial production.

The map shows prospective regions, or regions where minerals may occur based on geological and oceanographic criteria, for polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. The map also outlines mid-ocean ridges and back arc basins, which, along with volcanic arcs, are regions where hydrothermal vents form. Under certain conditions, hydrothermal vents can form polymetallic sulfide deposits. As of 2025, there are only a handful of locations where enough data have been collected on the grade and tonnage of these minerals for the term “deposit” to be used with confidence.