Zirconium and hafnium
James V. Jones III, Nadine M. Piatak, George M. Bedinger
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-V
Zirconium and hafnium are corrosion-resistant metals that are widely used in the chemical and nuclear industries. Most zirconium is consumed in the form of the main ore mineral zircon (ZrSiO4, or as zirconium oxide or other zirconium chemicals. Zirconium and hafnium are both refractory lithophile elements that have nearly identical...
Gallium
Nora K. Foley, Brian W. Jaskula, Bryn E. Kimball, Ruth F. Schulte
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-H
Gallium is a soft, silvery metallic element with an atomic number of 31 and the chemical symbol Ga. Gallium is used in a wide variety of products that have microelectronic components containing either gallium arsenide (GaAs) or gallium nitride (GaN). GaAs is able to change electricity directly into laser light...
Germanium and indium
W.C. Pat Shanks III, Bryn E. Kimball, Amy C. Tolcin, David E. Guberman
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-I
Germanium and indium are two important elements used in electronics devices, flat-panel display screens, light-emitting diodes, night vision devices, optical fiber, optical lens systems, and solar power arrays. Germanium and indium are treated together in this chapter because they have similar technological uses and because both are recovered as byproducts,...
Lithium
Dwight Bradley, Lisa L. Stillings, Brian W. Jaskula, LeeAnn Munk, Andrew D. McCauley
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-K
Lithium, the lightest of all metals, is used in air treatment, batteries, ceramics, glass, metallurgy, pharmaceuticals, and polymers. Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are particularly important in efforts to reduce global warming because they make it possible to power cars and trucks from renewable sources of energy (for example, hydroelectric, solar, or...
Cobalt
John F. Slack, Bryn E. Kimball, Kim B. Shedd
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-F
Cobalt is a silvery gray metal that has diverse uses based on certain key properties, including ferromagnetism, hardness and wear-resistance when alloyed with other metals, low thermal and electrical conductivity, high melting point, multiple valences, and production of intense blue colors when combined with silica. Cobalt is used mostly in...
Selenium
Lisa L. Stillings
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-Q
Selenium (Se) was discovered in 1817 in pyrite from copper mines in Sweden. It is a trace element in Earth’s crust, with an abundance of three to seven orders of magnitude less than the major rock-forming elements. Commercial use of selenium began in the United States in 1910, when it...
Fluorine
Timothy S. Hayes, M. Michael Miller, Greta J. Orris, Nadine M. Piatak
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-G
Fluorine compounds are essential in numerous chemical and manufacturing processes. Fluorspar is the commercial name for fluorite (isometric CaF2), which is the only fluorine mineral that is mined on a large scale. Fluorspar is used directly as a fluxing material and as an additive in different manufacturing processes. It is...
Titanium
Laurel G. Woodruff, George M. Bedinger, Nadine M. Piatak
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-T
Titanium is a mineral commodity that is essential to the smooth functioning of modern industrial economies. Most of the titanium produced is refined into titanium dioxide, which has a high refractive index and is thus able to impart a durable white color to paint, paper, plastic, rubber, and wallboard. Because...
Vanadium
Karen D. Kelley, Clint Scott, Desiree E. Polyak, Bryn E. Kimball
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-U
Vanadium is used primarily in the production of steel alloys; as a catalyst for the chemical industry; in the making of ceramics, glasses, and pigments; and in vanadium redox-flow batteries (VRBs) for large-scale storage of electricity. World vanadium resources in 2012 were estimated to be 63 million metric tons, which...
Environmental considerations related to mining of nonfuel minerals
Robert R. Seal II, Nadine M. Piatak, Bryn E. Kimball, Jane M. Hammarstrom
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-B
Throughout most of human history, environmental stewardship during mining has not been a priority partly because of the lack of applicable laws and regulations and partly because of ignorance about the effects that mining can have on the environment. In the United States, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969,...
Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802
SummaryMineral commodities are vital for economic growth, improving the quality of life, providing for national defense, and the overall functioning of modern society. Minerals are being used in larger quantities than ever before and in an increasingly diverse range of applications. With the increasing demand for a considerably more diverse...
Rhenium
David A. John, Robert R. Seal II, Désirée E. Polyak
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-P
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth’s continental crust; its estimated average crustal abundance is less than 1 part per billion. Rhenium is a metal that has an extremely high melting point and a heat-stable crystalline structure. More than 80 percent of the rhenium consumed in the world...
Tin
Robert J. Kamilli, Bryn E. Kimball, James F. Carlin Jr.
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-S
Tin (Sn) is one of the first metals to be used by humans. Almost without exception, tin is used as an alloy. Because of its hardening effect on copper, tin was used in bronze implements as early as 3500 B.C. The major uses of tin today are for cans and...
Manganese
William F. Cannon, Bryn E. Kimball, Lisa A. Corathers
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-L
Manganese is an essential element for modern industrial societies. Its principal use is in steelmaking, where it serves as a purifying agent in iron-ore refining and as an alloy that converts iron into steel. Although the amount of manganese consumed to make a ton of steel is small, ranging from...
Beryllium
Nora K. Foley, Brian W. Jaskula, Nadine M. Piatak, Ruth F. Schulte
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-E
Beryllium is a mineral commodity that is used in a variety of industries to make products that are essential for the smooth functioning of a modern society. Two minerals, bertrandite (which is supplied domestically) and beryl (which is currently supplied solely by imports), are necessary to ensure a stable supply...
Critical mineral resources of the United States—An introduction
Klaus J. Schulz, John H. DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal II, Dwight Bradley
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-A
Many changes have taken place in the mineral resource sector since the publication by the U.S. Geological Survey of Professional Paper 820, “United States Mineral Resources,” which is a review of the long-term United States resource position for 65 mineral commodities or commodity groups. For example, since 1973, the United...
Niobium and tantalum
Klaus J. Schulz, Nadine M. Piatak, John F. Papp
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-M
Niobium and tantalum are transition metals that are almost always found together in nature because they have very similar physical and chemical properties. Their properties of hardness, conductivity, and resistance to corrosion largely determine their primary uses today. The leading use of niobium (about 75 percent) is in the production...
Platinum-group elements
Michael L. Zientek, Patricia J. Loferski, Heather L. Parks, Ruth F. Schulte, Robert R. Seal II
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-N
The platinum-group elements (PGEs)—platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium—are metals that have similar physical and chemical properties and tend to occur together in nature. PGEs are indispensable to many industrial applications but are mined in only a few places. The availability and accessibility of PGEs could be disrupted by...
Antimony
Robert R. Seal II, Klaus J. Schulz, John H. DeYoung, Jr., David M. Sutphin, Lawrence J. Drew, James F. Carlin Jr., Byron R. Berger
Klaus J. Schulz, DeYoung Jr., Robert R. Seal, II, Dwight Bradley, editor(s)
2017, Professional Paper 1802-C
Antimony is an important mineral commodity used widely in modern industrialized societies. The element imparts strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance to alloys that are used in many areas of industry, including in lead-acid storage batteries. Antimony’s leading use is as a fire retardant in safety equipment and in household goods,...
Nanoscale geochemical and geomechanical characterization of dispersed organic matter in shale by infrared nanoscopy
Jin Yang, Javin J. Hatcherian, Paul C. Hackley, Andrew Pomerantz
2017, Nature Communications (8)
Solid organic matter (OM) plays an essential role in the generation, migration, storage, and production of hydrocarbons from economically important shale rock formations. Electron microscopy images have documented spatial heterogeneity in the porosity of OM at nanoscale, and bulk spectroscopy measurements have documented large variation in...
A field trip guide to the petrology of Quaternary volcanism on the Yellowstone Plateau
Jorge A. Vazquez, Mark E. Stelten, Ilya N. Bindeman, Kari Cooper
2017, Scientific Investigations Report 2017-5022-Q
The Yellowstone Plateau is one of the largest manifestations of silicic volcanism on Earth, and marks the youngest focus of magmatism associated with the Yellowstone Hot Spot. The earliest products of Yellowstone Hot Spot volcanism are from ~17 million years ago, but may be as old as ~32 Ma, and...
The discovery and character of Pleistocene calcrete uranium deposits in the Southern High Plains of west Texas, United States
Bradley S. Van Gosen, Susan M. Hall
2017, Scientific Investigations Report 2017-5134
This report describes the discovery and geology of two near-surface uranium deposits within calcareous lacustrine strata of Pleistocene age in west Texas, United States. Calcrete uranium deposits have not been previously reported in the United States. The west Texas uranium deposits share characteristics with some calcrete uranium deposits in Western...
Evaluation of the Hydrolab HL4 water-quality sonde and sensors
Teri T. Snazelle
2017, Open-File Report 2017-1153
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Hydrologic Instrumentation Facility evaluated three Hydrolab HL4 multiparameter water-quality sondes by OTT Hydromet. The sondes were equipped with temperature, conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and turbidity sensors. The sensors were evaluated for compliance with the USGS National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data...
Model-based scenario planning to inform climate change adaptation in the Northern Great Plains—Final report
Amy J. Symstad, Brian W. Miller, Jonathan M. Friedman, Nicholas A. Fisichelli, Andrea J. Ray, Erika Rowland, Gregor W. Schuurman
2017, Open-File Report 2017-1129
Public SummaryWe worked with managers in two focal areas to plan for the uncertain future by integrating quantitative climate change scenarios and simulation modeling into scenario planning exercises.In our central North Dakota focal area, centered on Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, managers are concerned about how changes in...
Laboratory evaluation of the Sequoia Scientific LISST-ABS acoustic backscatter sediment sensor
Teri T. Snazelle
2017, Open-File Report 2017-1154
Sequoia Scientific’s LISST-ABS is an acoustic backscatter sensor designed to measure suspended-sediment concentration at a point source. Three LISST-ABS were evaluated at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Hydrologic Instrumentation Facility (HIF). Serial numbers 6010, 6039, and 6058 were assessed for accuracy in solutions with varying particle-size distributions and for the...
